What I want to talk to you about is what we can learn from studying the genomes of living people and extinct humans. But before doing that, I just briefly want to remind you about what you already know: that our genomes, our genetic material, are stored in almost all cells in our bodies in chromosomes in the form of DNA, which is this famous double-helical molecule. And the genetic information is contained in the form of a sequence of four bases abbreviated with the letters A, T, C and G. And the information is there twice -- one on each strand -- which is important, because when new cells are formed, these strands come apart, new strands are synthesized with the old ones as templates in an almost perfect process.
Ono o čemu vam želim govoriti je što možemo naučiti iz proučavanja genoma živih ljudi i izumrlih ljudi. Ali prije no što to učinimo, ukratko vas želim podsjetiti o onome što već znate: da su naši genomi, naš genetički materijal, pohranjeni u gotovo svim stanicama našeg tijela u kromosomima u DNK formi, što je ova poznata molekula dvostruke zavojnice. I genetski materijal je sadržan u obliku niza od četiri baze skraćene slovima A, T, C i G. I informacija je tu dvostruka -- jedna na svakoj strani -- što je važno zato što kada se stvore nove stanice, te strane se razdvoje, nove strane se sintetiziraju sa starima kao predložak u gotovo savršenom procesu.
But nothing, of course, in nature is totally perfect, so sometimes an error is made and a wrong letter is built in. And we can then see the result of such mutations when we compare DNA sequences among us here in the room, for example. If we compare my genome to the genome of you, approximately every 1,200, 1,300 letters will differ between us. And these mutations accumulate approximately as a function of time. So if we add in a chimpanzee here, we will see more differences. Approximately one letter in a hundred will differ from a chimpanzee.
Ali, naravno, u prirodi ništa nije potpuno savršeno pa se ponekad potkrade greška i ugradi se krivo slovo. I tada možemo vidjeti rezultat takvih mutacija kada usporedimo DNK niz među nama u ovoj sobi na primjer. Ako usporedim svoj genom s vašim genomom, otprilike svakih 1.200 – 1.300 slova će biti različito među nama. I te mutacije se gomilaju otprilike kao funkcija vremena. Ako ovdje dodamo i čimpanzu, vidjet ćemo još više različitosti. Otprilike jedno slovo na njih sto će se razlikovati od čimpanze.
And if you're then interested in the history of a piece of DNA, or the whole genome, you can reconstruct the history of the DNA with those differences you observe. And generally we depict our ideas about this history in the form of trees like this. In this case, it's very simple. The two human DNA sequences go back to a common ancestor quite recently. Farther back is there one shared with chimpanzees. And because these mutations happen approximately as a function of time, you can transform these differences to estimates of time, where the two humans, typically, will share a common ancestor about half a million years ago, and with the chimpanzees, it will be in the order of five million years ago.
I onda, ako ste zainteresirani za povijest komadića DNK, ili cijelog genoma možete rekonstruirati povijest DNK s onima čije razlike promatrate. I općenito, naše ideje o ovoj povijesti opisujemo u oblicima drveta poput ovog. U ovom slučaju, veoma jednostavno. Dvije ljudske DNK sekvence se vraćaju do zajedničkog pretka relativno nedavno. Još dalje je jedan kojeg dijelimo s čimpanzama. I zbog toga mutacije se događaju otprilike kao funkcija vremena, možete pretvoriti ove razlike u procjenu vremena gdje će dvoje ljudi, tipično, dijeliti zajedničkog pretka od prije pola milijuna godina i sa čimpanzama, bit će na redu od prije pet milijuna godina.
So what has now happened in the last few years is that there are account technologies around that allow you to see many, many pieces of DNA very quickly. So we can now, in a matter of hours, determine a whole human genome. Each of us, of course, contains two human genomes -- one from our mothers and one from our fathers. And they are around three billion such letters long. And we will find that the two genomes in me, or one genome of mine we want to use, will have about three million differences in the order of that. And what you can then also begin to do is to say, "How are these genetic differences distributed across the world?" And if you do that, you find a certain amount of genetic variation in Africa. And if you look outside Africa, you actually find less genetic variation. This is surprising, of course, because in the order of six to eight times fewer people live in Africa than outside Africa. Yet the people inside Africa have more genetic variation.
Ono što se sada dogodilo je da u posljednjih nekoliko godina postoje tehnologije računanja koje vam dozvoljavaju da vidite mnogo, mnogo dijelova DNK i to veoma brzo. Tako sad u nekoliko sati možemo odrediti cijeli ljudski genom. Svatko od nas, naravno, sadrži dva ljudska genoma -- jedan od naših majki i jedan od naših očeva. I dugi su otprilike tri milijarde takvih slova. I otkrit ćemo da dva genoma u meni ili jedan genom koji želimo iskoristiti ima oko tri milijarde razlika zbog toga. I ono što također možete početi raditi je da kažete kako se ove genetičke razlike prikazuju diljem svijeta. I ako to učinite, pronaći ćete određenu količinu genetičkih varijacija u Africi. A ako pogledate izvan Afrike, zapravo ćete pronaći manje genetičkih varijacija. To je iznenađujuće, naravno, zbog toga što u Africi živi šest do osam puta manje ljudi nego van Afrike. Unatoč tome ljudi u Africi imaju više genetičkih varijacija.
Moreover, almost all these genetic variants we see outside Africa have closely related DNA sequences that you find inside Africa. But if you look in Africa, there is a component of the genetic variation that has no close relatives outside. So a model to explain this is that a part of the African variation, but not all of it, [has] gone out and colonized the rest of the world. And together with the methods to date these genetic differences, this has led to the insight that modern humans -- humans that are essentially indistinguishable from you and me -- evolved in Africa, quite recently, between 100 and 200,000 years ago. And later, between 100 and 50,000 years ago or so, went out of Africa to colonize the rest of the world.
Štoviše, gotovo sve ove genetičke varijacije koje vidimo izvan Afrike imaju veoma usko povezane DNK sekvence koje ćete pronaći i u Africi. Ali ako pogledate u Africi postoji sastavni dio genetske varijacije koji nema usko povezane rođake izvan. Dakle, model koji bi ovo objasnio je da su dijelovi afričkih promjena, ali ne svi, otišli i kolonizirali ostatak svijeta. I zajedno s metodama koje bi datirale ove genetske razlike, to nas je dovelo do uvida da su se moderni ljudi -- ljudi koji se ne razlikuju bitno od vas i mene -- razvili u Africi relativno nedavno prije 100 do 200.000 godina. I kasnije, prije 100 i 50.000 godina, otišli iz Afrike ne bi li kolonizirali ostatak svijeta.
So what I often like to say is that, from a genomic perspective, we are all Africans. We either live inside Africa today, or in quite recent exile. Another consequence of this recent origin of modern humans is that genetic variants are generally distributed widely in the world, in many places, and they tend to vary as gradients, from a bird's-eye perspective at least. And since there are many genetic variants, and they have different such gradients, this means that if we determine a DNA sequence -- a genome from one individual -- we can quite accurately estimate where that person comes from, provided that its parents or grandparents haven't moved around too much.
Ono što često volim reći je da smo s genomske perspektive svi Afrikanci. Ili danas živimo u Africi ili smo relativno nedavno prognani. Druga posljedica ovog nedavnog podrijetla modernih ljudi je da su genetičke varijante generalno raspodijeljene širom svijeta, na mnogo mjesta, i imaju tendenciju variranja poput gradijenata, barem iz ptičje perspektive. I s obzirom da postoji mnogo genetskih varijanti i imaju različite takve gradijente, to znači da ako odredimo DNK sekvencu -- genom iz jedne individue -- možemo prilično točno procijeniti odakle ta osoba dolazi, pod pretpostavkom da mu se roditelji ili bake i djedovi nisu previše selili.
But does this then mean, as many people tend to think, that there are huge genetic differences between groups of people -- on different continents, for example? Well we can begin to ask those questions also. There is, for example, a project that's underway to sequence a thousand individuals -- their genomes -- from different parts of the world. They've sequenced 185 Africans from two populations in Africa. [They've] sequenced approximately equally [as] many people in Europe and in China. And we can begin to say how much variance do we find, how many letters that vary in at least one of those individual sequences. And it's a lot: 38 million variable positions.
Ali znači li to, kao što mnogi ljudi misle, da postoje velike genetičke razlike među grupama ljudi -- na različitim kontinentima na primjer? Pa, možemo također postaviti i ta pitanja. Na primjer, postoji projekt koji pokušava sekvencirati tisuće jedinki -- njihovih genoma -- iz raznih dijelova svijeta. Poredali su 185 Afrikanaca iz dvije populacije u Africi. Poredak je otprilike jednak broju ljudi u Europi i Kini. I počinjemo govoriti o tome koliko varijacija nalazimo, koliko slova koje variraju u najmanje jednom od tih individualnih sekvenca. I mnogo ih je: 38 milijuna promjenjivih pozicija.
But we can then ask: Are there any absolute differences between Africans and non-Africans? Perhaps the biggest difference most of us would imagine existed. And with absolute difference -- and I mean a difference where people inside Africa at a certain position, where all individuals -- 100 percent -- have one letter, and everybody outside Africa has another letter. And the answer to that, among those millions of differences, is that there is not a single such position. This may be surprising. Maybe a single individual is misclassified or so. So we can relax the criterion a bit and say: How many positions do we find where 95 percent of people in Africa have one variant, 95 percent another variant, and the number of that is 12.
Ali možemo upitati: Postoji li koja potpuna razlika među Afrikancima i ne-Afrikancima? Možda najveća razlika koju bi većina od nas uopće zamislila da postoji. A s potpunom razlikom -- i pritom mislim na razliku gdje ljudi unutar Afrike na određenom mjestu, gdje sve jedinke -- 100 posto -- imaju jedno slovo i svi van Afrike imaju drugo slovo. I odgovor na to među milijunima tih razlika je da ne postoji nijedno takvo mjesto. To može biti iznenađujuće. Možda je jedna jedinka previđena ili tako nešto. Možemo sniziti kriterije i reći: Koliko mjesta nalazimo tamo gdje 95 posto ljudi u Africi ima jednu varijantu, 95 posto drugu varijantu i taj broj je 12.
So this is very surprising. It means that when we look at people and see a person from Africa and a person from Europe or Asia, we cannot, for a single position in the genome with 100 percent accuracy, predict what the person would carry. And only for 12 positions can we hope to be 95 percent right. This may be surprising, because we can, of course, look at these people and quite easily say where they or their ancestors came from. So what this means now is that those traits we then look at and so readily see -- facial features, skin color, hair structure -- are not determined by single genes with big effects, but are determined by many different genetic variants that seem to vary in frequency between different parts of the world.
Dakle, to je veoma iznenađujuće. To znači da kada gledamo ljude i vidimo osobu iz Afrike i osobu iz Europe ili Azije, ne možemo ni za jedno mjesto u genomu sa stopostotnom sigurnošću reći koju osoba nosi. A samo za 12 mjesta se možemo nadati da će biti 95 posto točni. To može biti iznenađujuće, zato što možemo, naravno, pogledati te ljude i veoma lako reći odakle im dolaze preci. To sada znači da ta svojstva koja pogledamo i tako spremno vidimo -- svojstva lica, boja kože, struktura kose -- nisu određena pojedinim genima s velikim efektima već su određena s mnogo genetičkih varijanti za koje se čini da variraju frekventno među različitim dijelovima svijeta.
There is another thing with those traits that we so easily observe in each other that I think is worthwhile to consider, and that is that, in a very literal sense, they're really on the surface of our bodies. They are what we just said -- facial features, hair structure, skin color. There are also a number of features that vary between continents like that that have to do with how we metabolize food that we ingest, or that have to do with how our immune systems deal with microbes that try to invade our bodies. But so those are all parts of our bodies where we very directly interact with our environment, in a direct confrontation, if you like. It's easy to imagine how particularly those parts of our bodies were quickly influenced by selection from the environment and shifted frequencies of genes that are involved in them. But if we look on other parts of our bodies where we don't directly interact with the environment -- our kidneys, our livers, our hearts -- there is no way to say, by just looking at these organs, where in the world they would come from.
Postoji još jedna stvar s tim svojstvima koja tako lako primjećujemo jedni na drugima za koje smatram da su vrijedna razmatranja, a to su u veoma doslovnom smislu, one su zaista na površini našeg tijela. To je ono što smo upravo rekli -- svojstva lica, struktura kose, boja kože. Postoje također brojne značajke koje variraju među kontinentima na način da se moramo nositi s time kako metaboliziramo hranu koju jedemo ili kako se naš organizam bori s mikrobima koji pokušavaju napasti naše tijelo. Ali sve su to dijelovi našeg tijela s kojima veoma direktno sudjelujemo s okolinom, u veoma direktnom suočavanju, ako želite. Lako je zamisliti kako su naročito ti dijelovi naših tijela brzo pali pod utjecaj selekcije iz prirode i pomaknuli učestalost gena koji su uključeni u njih. Ali ako pogledamo druge dijelove tijela s kojima nismo direktno u kontaktu s okolinom -- naše bubrege, našu jetru, naša srca -- nema načina na koji bismo rekli samo gledajući te organe, odakle su iz cijelog svijeta oni došli.
So there's another interesting thing that comes from this realization that humans have a recent common origin in Africa, and that is that when those humans emerged around 100,000 years ago or so, they were not alone on the planet. There were other forms of humans around, most famously perhaps, Neanderthals -- these robust forms of humans, compared to the left here with a modern human skeleton on the right -- that existed in Western Asia and Europe since several hundreds of thousands of years. So an interesting question is, what happened when we met? What happened to the Neanderthals?
Dakle, postoji još jedna zanimljiva stvar koja proizlazi iz spoznaje da ljudi imaju zajedničko podrijetlo u Africi, a kad su se ti ljudi pojavili prije otprilike 100.000 godina, nisu bili sami na planeti. Bilo je drugih vrsta ljudi, možda najpoznatiji -- Neandertalci -- robustan oblik ljudi, s lijeve strane, u odnosu na moderni ljudski kostur na desnoj strani -- koji su postojali u Zapadnoj Aziji i Europi nekoliko stotina tisuća godina. Dakle, zanimljivo pitanje je, što se dogodilo kada smo se susreli? Što se dogodilo s Neandertalcima?
And to begin to answer such questions, my research group -- since over 25 years now -- works on methods to extract DNA from remains of Neanderthals and extinct animals that are tens of thousands of years old. So this involves a lot of technical issues in how you extract the DNA, how you convert it to a form you can sequence. You have to work very carefully to avoid contamination of experiments with DNA from yourself. And this then, in conjunction with these methods that allow very many DNA molecules to be sequenced very rapidly, allowed us last year to present the first version of the Neanderthal genome, so that any one of you can now look on the Internet, on the Neanderthal genome, or at least on the 55 percent of it that we've been able to reconstruct so far. And you can begin to compare it to the genomes of people who live today.
Kako bi mogli odgovoriti na takva pitanja, moja istraživačka skupina -- preko 25 godina -- radi na metodama za izdvajanje DNK iz ostataka Neandertalaca i izumrlih životinja koje su stare desetke tisuća godina. Dakle, to uključuje puno tehničkih problema u tome kako izvući DNK, kako ga pretvoriti u oblik koji možete sekvencirati. Morate raditi vrlo pažljivo kako bi izbjegli kontaminaciju eksperimenata s vlastitom DNK. A to, zahvaljujući metodama koje omogućuju da se veliki broj molekula DNK jako brzo sekvencira, nam je omogućilo da prošle godine predstavimo prvu verziju genoma Neandertalca, tako da bilo tko od vas sada može pogledati na internetu genom Neandertalca, ili barem onih 55 posto što smo do sada uspjeli rekonstruirati. A možete ga početi uspoređivati s genomom ljudi koji žive danas.
And one question that you may then want to ask is, what happened when we met? Did we mix or not? And the way to ask that question is to look at the Neanderthal that comes from Southern Europe and compare it to genomes of people who live today. So we then look to do this with pairs of individuals, starting with two Africans, looking at the two African genomes, finding places where they differ from each other, and in each case ask: What is a Neanderthal like? Does it match one African or the other African? We would expect there to be no difference, because Neanderthals were never in Africa. They should be equal, have no reason to be closer to one African than another African. And that's indeed the case. Statistically speaking, there is no difference in how often the Neanderthal matches one African or the other. But this is different if we now look at the European individual and an African. Then, significantly more often, does a Neanderthal match the European rather than the African. The same is true if we look at a Chinese individual versus an African, the Neanderthal will match the Chinese individual more often. This may also be surprising because the Neanderthals were never in China.
I jedno pitanje koje si možete postaviti je što se dogodilo kada smo se susreli? Jesmo li se pomiješali ili ne? A jedan od načina kako postaviti to pitanje je da pogledamo Neandertalca koji dolazi iz južne Europe i da njegov genom usporedimo s genomom ljudi koji žive danas. To moramo učiniti s parovima pojedinaca, počevši s dva Afrikanca, gledajući dva afrička genoma i pronalazeći mjesta na kojima se razlikuju jedan od drugog, u svakom slučaju se zapitati: Što je poput Neandertalca? Je li sličan jednom ili drugom Afrikancu? Mi bismo očekivali da neće biti razlike jer Neandertalci nisu nikada bili u Africi. Oni bi trebali biti jednaki, nemaju razloga biti bliži jednom Afrikancu, a drugom ne. I to je doista slučaj. Statistički gledano, ne postoji razlika u tome koliko Neandertalac odgovara jednom ili drugom Afrikancu. Ali to je drugačije ako ćemo sada gledati Europskog pojedinca i Afričkog. Tako, značajno se češće, Neandertalac podudara s Europljaninom nego s Afrikancem. Isto vrijedi i ako ćemo gledati kineskog pojedinca u odnosu na afričkog, Neandertalac će odgovarati kineskom pojedincu češće. To je također iznenađujuće jer Neandertalci nisu nikada bili u Kini.
So the model we've proposed to explain this is that when modern humans came out of Africa sometime after 100,000 years ago, they met Neanderthals. Presumably, they did so first in the Middle East, where there were Neanderthals living. If they then mixed with each other there, then those modern humans that became the ancestors of everyone outside Africa carried with them this Neanderthal component in their genome to the rest of the world. So that today, the people living outside Africa have about two and a half percent of their DNA from Neanderthals.
Dakle, model koji smo predložili da ovo objasni je taj kada su moderni ljudi otišli iz Afrike negdje prije 100.000 godina susreli su se s Neandertalcima. To se vjerojatno dogodilo na Bliskom istoku, gdje su Neandertalci živjeli. Ako su se tada međusobno pomiješali, onda su ti moderni ljudi koji su postali preci svih ljudi izvan Afrike, nosili u sebi neandertalsku komponentu u genomu i prenijeli ih ostatku svijeta. Tako da danas, ljudi koji žive izvan Afrike imaju oko 2.5 posto svoje DNK koja potječe od Neandertalaca.
So having now a Neanderthal genome on hand as a reference point and having the technologies to look at ancient remains and extract the DNA, we can begin to apply them elsewhere in the world. And the first place we've done that is in Southern Siberia in the Altai Mountains at a place called Denisova, a cave site in this mountain here, where archeologists in 2008 found a tiny little piece of bone -- this is a copy of it -- that they realized came from the last phalanx of a little finger of a pinky of a human. And it was well enough preserved so we could determine the DNA from this individual, even to a greater extent than for the Neanderthals actually, and start relating it to the Neanderthal genome and to people today. And we found that this individual shared a common origin for his DNA sequences with Neanderthals around 640,000 years ago. And further back, 800,000 years ago is there a common origin with present day humans.
Imajući neandertalski genom kao referentnu točku te tehnologiju kojom možemo gledati drevne ostatke i ekstraktirati DNK, možemo ih početi primjenjivati u drugim dijelovima svijeta. A prvo mjesto gdje smo to učinili je u južnom Sibiru u planinama Altai u mjestu zvanom Denisova, špilja u planini gdje su arheolozi 2008. godine pronašli komadić kosti -- ovo je kopija -- ustanovili su da pripada posljednjoj falangi malog prsta čovjeka. Bila je jako dobro očuvana tako da smo mogli utvrditi DNK tog pojedinca, čak u većoj mjeri nego za Neandertalce, i početi uspoređivati s genomom Neandertalca i današnjih ljudi. Otkrili smo da ta osoba dijeli zajedničko podrijetlo za svoj slijed DNK s Neandertalcima prije 640.000 godina. I dalje, 800.000 godina prije postoji zajedničko podrijetlo s današnjim ljudima.
So this individual comes from a population that shares an origin with Neanderthals, but far back and then have a long independent history. We call this group of humans, that we then described for the first time from this tiny, tiny little piece of bone, the Denisovans, after this place where they were first described. So we can then ask for Denisovans the same things as for the Neanderthals: Did they mix with ancestors of present day people? If we ask that question, and compare the Denisovan genome to people around the world, we surprisingly find no evidence of Denisovan DNA in any people living even close to Siberia today. But we do find it in Papua New Guinea and in other islands in Melanesia and the Pacific. So this presumably means that these Denisovans had been more widespread in the past, since we don't think that the ancestors of Melanesians were ever in Siberia.
Dakle, ovaj pojedinac dolazi iz populacije koja dijeli podrijetlo s Neandertalcima, ali dalje u prošlosti imaju dugu povijest neovisnosti. Ovu skupinu ljudi nazivamo, koje smo prvi put opisali, zahvaljujući malom komadiću kosti, Denisovanci, po mjestu gdje su prvi put opisani. Tako za njih možemo postaviti isto pitanje kao i za Neandertalce: Jesu li se miješali s precima današnjih ljudi? Ako postavimo to pitanje, i usporedimo Denisovanski genom s genomom ljudi diljem svijeta, iznenađujuće, ne možemo pronaći nikakav dokaz o Denisovanskom DNK kod ljudi koji žive ni blizu Sibira. Ali smo ga pronašli u Papui Novoj Gvineji i na drugim otocima u Melaneziji te u Pacifiku. Dakle, to vjerojatno znači da su bili znatno prošireniji u prošlosti jer ne smatramo da su preci Malezijanaca bili u Sibiru.
So from studying these genomes of extinct humans, we're beginning to arrive at a picture of what the world looked like when modern humans started coming out of Africa. In the West, there were Neanderthals; in the East, there were Denisovans -- maybe other forms of humans too that we've not yet described. We don't know quite where the borders between these people were, but we know that in Southern Siberia, there were both Neanderthals and Denisovans at least at some time in the past. Then modern humans emerged somewhere in Africa, came out of Africa, presumably in the Middle East. They meet Neanderthals, mix with them, continue to spread over the world, and somewhere in Southeast Asia, they meet Denisovans and mix with them and continue on out into the Pacific. And then these earlier forms of humans disappear, but they live on a little bit today in some of us -- in that people outside of Africa have two and a half percent of their DNA from Neanderthals, and people in Melanesia actually have an additional five percent approximately from the Denisovans.
Dakle, iz proučavanja genoma izumrlih ljudi, počinjemo si predočavati kako je svijet izgledao u doba kada su moderni ljudi počeli dolaziti iz Afrike. Na zapadu su bili Neandertalci, na istoku su bili Denisovanci -- možda i druge vrste ljudi koje još nismo opisali. Ne znamo gdje su bile granice između tih ljudi, ali znamo da je u južnom Sibiru, bilo je i Neandertalaca i Denisovanaca barem na neko vrijeme u prošlosti. Zatim, moderni ljudi se pojavljuju u Africi, dolaze iz Afrike, vjerojatno na Bliski istok. Upoznaju Neandertalce, miješaju se s njima, i nastavljaju se širiti diljem svijeta, a negdje u jugoistočnoj Aziji, susreću Denisovance te se miješaju s njima i nastavljaju se širiti po Tihom oceanu. A onda ti raniji oblici ljudi nestaju, ali pomalo nastavljaju živjeti u nekima od nas -- ljudi izvan Afrike imaju dva i pol posto neandertalske DNK, a ljudi u Melaneziji imaju dodatnih otprilike pet posto od Denisovanaca.
Does this then mean that there is after all some absolute difference between people outside Africa and inside Africa in that people outside Africa have this old component in their genome from these extinct forms of humans, whereas Africans do not? Well I don't think that is the case. Presumably, modern humans emerged somewhere in Africa. They spread across Africa also, of course, and there were older, earlier forms of humans there. And since we mixed elsewhere, I'm pretty sure that one day, when we will perhaps have a genome of also these earlier forms in Africa, we will find that they have also mixed with early modern humans in Africa.
Znači li to onda da postoji apsolutna razlika između ljudi izvan i unutar Afrike i da ljudi izvan Afrike imaju ove stare komponente u svom genomu od ovih izumrlih oblika ljudi, a afrikanci ne? Pa, ja ne mislim da je to slučaj. Vjerojatno je da su se moderni ljudi pojavili negdje u Africi. Oni su proširili diljem Afrike i, naravno, tamo je bilo starijih, ranijih oblika ljudi. A budući da smo se miješali i drugdje, poprilično sam siguran da će se jednoga dana, kada ćemo možda imati genom tih, ranijih oblika ljudi u Africi, saznati da su se i oni međusobno pomiješali s precima modernih ljudi ondje.
So to sum up, what have we learned from studying genomes of present day humans and extinct humans? We learn perhaps many things, but one thing that I find sort of important to mention is that I think the lesson is that we have always mixed. We mixed with these earlier forms of humans, wherever we met them, and we mixed with each other ever since.
Da zaključimo, što smo naučili iz proučavanja genoma današnjeg čovjeka i izumrlih ljudi? Mi možda učimo mnogo stvari, ali postoji jedna stvar koju je važno napomenuti, a to je pouka da smo se uvijek miješali. Miješali smo se s ranijim oblicima ljudi, gdjegod smo ih susreli, i miješamo se međusobno od tada.
Thank you for your attention.
Hvala vam na pozornosti.
(Applause)
(Pljesak)