We humans have always been very concerned about the health of our bodies, but we haven't always been that good at figuring out what's important. Take the ancient Egyptians, for example: very concerned about the body parts they thought they'd need in the afterlife, but they left some parts out. This part, for example. Although they very carefully preserved the stomach, the lungs, the liver, and so forth, they just mushed up the brain, drained it out through the nose, and threw it away, which makes sense, really, because what does a brain do for us anyway? But imagine if there were a kind of neglected organ in our bodies that weighed just as much as the brain and in some ways was just as important to who we are, but we knew so little about and treated with such disregard. And imagine if, through new scientific advances, we were just beginning to understand its importance to how we think of ourselves. Wouldn't you want to know more about it?
Mi ljudi smo oduvek bili veoma zabrinuti za zdravlje svojih tela, ali ne shvatamo uvek tako dobro ono što je važno. Uzmimo za primer drevne Egipćane: veoma su brinuli o delovima tela za koje su smatrali da će im biti potrebni u zagrobnom životu, ali su izostavili neke delove. Ovaj deo, na primer. Iako su veoma pažljivo čuvali stomak, pluća, jetru i nadalje, od mozga su jednostavno pravili masu, izvukli je kroz nos i bacili ga, što zapravo ima smisla, jer čemu nam mozak uopšte služi? Ai zamislite da u našim telima postoji zanemaren organ koji je iste težine kao mozak i koji je u određenim funkcijama od podjednake važnosti za nas, ali o kom znamo veoma malo i koji zanemarujemo. Zamislite da, zahvaljujući naučnim dostignućima, tek počinjemo da shvatamo njegovu važnost za razumevanje nas samih. Zar ne biste želeli da saznate više o njemu?
Well, it turns out that we do have something just like that: our gut, or rather, its microbes. But it's not just the microbes in our gut that are important. Microbes all over our body turn out to be really critical to a whole range of differences that make different people who we are. So for example, have you ever noticed how some people get bitten by mosquitos way more often than others?
Ispostavilo se da imamo nešto upravo takvo: našu utrobu. Ili bolje rečeno, njene mikrobe. Međutim, nisu važni samo mikrobi u našoj utrobi. Ispostavilo se da su mikrobi u čitavom telu od suštinske važnosti za čitav niz razlika koje nas čine različitima. Na primer, da li ste ikada primetili da komarci ujedaju neke ljude mnogo češće nego druge?
It turns out that everyone's anecdotal experience out camping is actually true. For example, I seldom get bitten by mosquitos, but my partner Amanda attracts them in droves, and the reason why is that we have different microbes on our skin that produce different chemicals that the mosquitos detect.
Ispostavilo se da su šaljiva iskustva sa kampovanja zapravo tačna. Na primer, mene retko ujedaju komarci, međutim, moja partnerka Amanda ih privlači u rojevima, a razlog tome je što imamo različite mikrobe na koži, koji proizvode različite hemikalije koje komarci detektuju.
Now, microbes are also really important in the field of medicine. So, for example, what microbes you have in your gut determine whether particular painkillers are toxic to your liver. They also determine whether or not other drugs will work for your heart condition. And, if you're a fruit fly, at least, your microbes determine who you want to have sex with. We haven't demonstrated this in humans yet but maybe it's just a matter of time before we find out. (Laughter)
Mikrobi su takođe veoma važni u oblasti medicine. Tako na primer, mikrobi koje imate u crevima određuju da li su izvesni lekovi protiv bolova otrovni po vašu jetru. Oni takođe određuju da li će drugi lekovi za vaše srčane probleme delovati ili ne. A u slučaju vinskih mušica mikrobi određuju izbor seksualnog partnera. Ovo još nismo dokazali kod ljudi ali možda je samo pitanje vremena kada ćemo otkriti. (Smeh)
So microbes are performing a huge range of functions. They help us digest our food. They help educate our immune system. They help us resist disease, and they may even be affecting our behavior. So what would a map of all these microbial communities look like? Well, it wouldn't look exactly like this, but it's a helpful guide for understanding biodiversity. Different parts of the world have different landscapes of organisms that are immediately characteristic of one place or another or another. With microbiology, it's kind of the same, although I've got to be honest with you: All the microbes essentially look the same under a microscope. So instead of trying to identify them visually, what we do is we look at their DNA sequences, and in a project called the Human Microbiome Project, NIH funded this $173 million project where hundreds of researchers came together to map out all the A's, T's, G's, and C's, and all of these microbes in the human body. So when we take them together, they look like this. It's a bit more difficult to tell who lives where now, isn't it?
Tako da mikrobi obavljaju ogroman broj funkcija. Pomažu nam da varimo hranu. Pomažu nam da oformimo imunološki sistem. Pomažu nam da se odbranimo od bolesti, a moguće je da utiču čak i na naše ponašanje. Dakle, kako bi izgledala mapa svih ovih grupacija mikroba? Ne bi izgledala baš ovako, ali ovo je koristan vodič za razumevanje biodiverziteta. Različiti delovi sveta imaju različite organizme u okruženju koji su neposredno karakteristični za jedno mesto ili drugo ili neko drugo. U neku ruku je isto i sa mikrobiologijom, mada moram biti iskren prema vama: svi mikroorganizmi izgledaju isto pod mikroskopom. Tako da, umesto da pokušavamo da ih vizuelno identifikujemo, mi posmatramo njihove DNK sekvence, u projektu koji je nazvan Projekat ljudskog bioma, koji je Nacionalni institut za zdravlje finansirao sa 173 miliona dolara, u kom su okupljene stotine istraživača u cilju detaljnog uređenja svih vrsta A, T, G i C i svih ovih mikroba u ljudskom telu. Tako da, kada ih spojimo, oni izgledaju ovako. Sada je malo teže odrediti ko gde živi, zar ne?
What my lab does is develop computational techniques that allow us to take all these terabytes of sequence data and turn them into something that's a bit more useful as a map, and so when we do that with the human microbiome data from 250 healthy volunteers, it looks like this. Each point here represents all the complex microbes in an entire microbial community. See, I told you they basically all look the same. So what we're looking at is each point represents one microbial community from one body site of one healthy volunteer. And so you can see that there's different parts of the map in different colors, almost like separate continents. And what it turns out to be is that those, as the different regions of the body, have very different microbes in them. So what we have is we have the oral community up there in green. Over on the other side, we have the skin community in blue, the vaginal community in purple, and then right down at the bottom, we have the fecal community in brown. And we've just over the last few years found out that the microbes in different parts of the body are amazingly different from one another. So if I look at just one person's microbes in the mouth and in the gut, it turns out that the difference between those two microbial communities is enormous. It's bigger than the difference between the microbes in this reef and the microbes in this prairie. So this is incredible when you think about it. What it means is that a few feet of difference in the human body makes more of a difference to your microbial ecology than hundreds of miles on Earth.
Moja laboratorija se bavi razvijanjem kompjuterskih tehnika koje nam omogućavaju da uzmemo ove terabajte nizova podataka i pretvorimo ih u nešto što je malo korisnije, kao mapa, i kada to učinimo sa podacima ljudskog mikrobioma koji potiču od 250 zdravih dobrovoljaca, to izgleda ovako. Svaka tačka ovde predstavlja sve kompleksne mikrobe u celokupnoj mikrobijalnoj zajednici. Rekao sam vam, u suštini svi izgledaju isto. Ono sto zapažamo je da svaka tačka predstavlja jednu mikrobijalnu zajednicu s jednog tela jednog zdravog dobrovoljca. Možete primetiti da su različiti delovi mape različitih boja, skoro kao odvojeni kontinenti. Pokazalo se da oni, kao različiti delovi tela, sadrže veoma različite mikrobe. Imamo oralnu zajednicu gore u zelenom. Gore s druge strane imamo zajednicu kože koja je plava, vaginalna zajednica je ljubičasta, i onda skroz dole na dnu, imamo fekalnu zajednicu koja je braon. Tek smo u poslednjih nekoliko godina otkrili da se mikrobi u različitim delovima tela neverovatno međusobno razlikuju. Tako da, ako pogledam mikrobe u ustima ili crevima samo jedne osobe, ispostavlja se da je razlika između te dve zajednice mikroba ogromna. Veća je od razlike između mikroba na ovom grebenu i mikroba u ovoj preriji. Ovo je neverovatno kada razmislite o tome. To znači da nekoliko metara razlike u ljudskom telu čini veću razliku vašoj mikrobijalnoj ekologiji nego stotine kilometara na Zemlji.
And this is not to say that two people look basically the same in the same body habitat, either. So you probably heard that we're pretty much all the same in terms of our human DNA. You're 99.99 percent identical in terms of your human DNA to the person sitting next to you. But that's not true of your gut microbes: you might only share 10 percent similarity with the person sitting next to you in terms of your gut microbes. So that's as different as the bacteria on this prairie and the bacteria in this forest.
Time se ne tvrdi da dve osobe izgledaju potpuno isto niti da su im tela ista. Verovatno ste čuli da smo svi mi uglavnom isti kada je u pitanju naš ljudski DNK. Vi ste 99,99 posto identični osobi koja sedi pored vas kada je pitanju vaš ljudski DNK. Međutim, to nije isto za vaše crevne mikrobe. Možete deliti samo 10 procenata sličnosti sa osobom koja sedi pored vas, kada se radi o crevnim mikrobima. Oni se razlikuju kao bakterije na ovoj preriji i bakterije u ovoj šumi.
So these different microbes have all these different kinds of functions that I told you about, everything from digesting food to involvement in different kinds of diseases, metabolizing drugs, and so forth. So how do they do all this stuff? Well, in part it's because although there's just three pounds of those microbes in our gut, they really outnumber us. And so how much do they outnumber us? Well, it depends on what you think of as our bodies. Is it our cells? Well, each of us consists of about 10 trillion human cells, but we harbor as many as 100 trillion microbial cells. So they outnumber us 10 to one. Now, you might think, well, we're human because of our DNA, but it turns out that each of us has about 20,000 human genes, depending on what you count exactly, but as many as two million to 20 million microbial genes. So whichever way we look at it, we're vastly outnumbered by our microbial symbionts. And it turns out that in addition to traces of our human DNA, we also leave traces of our microbial DNA on everything we touch. We showed in a study a few years ago that you can actually match the palm of someone's hand up to the computer mouse that they use routinely with up to 95 percent accuracy. So this came out in a scientific journal a few years ago, but more importantly, it was featured on "CSI: Miami," so you really know it's true. (Laughter)
Tako da ti različiti mikrobi imaju svakakve različite vrste funkcija o kojim sam vam pričao, počevši od varenja hrane do učestvovanja u različitim bolestima, razlaganju lekova, i tako dalje. Nego, kako uspevaju u svemu tome? Delimično tako što, uprkos tome što ima samo 1,3 kilograma ovih mikroba u našim crevima, zapravo ih ima više nego nas. A koliko više ih ima od nas? Pa, zavisi od toga šta smatramo našim telima. Da li su to naše ćelije? Svako od nas se sastoji od oko 10 biliona ljudskih ćelija, ali svi posedujemo 100 biliona mikrobijalnih ćelija. Tako da ih ima više od nas u srazmeri 10 prema 1. Možda ćete pomisliti, pa, mi smo ljudi zbog našeg DNK. ali se ispostavilo da svako od nas ima oko 20,000 ljudskih gena, u zavisnosti od toga šta tačno brojite, ali imate između dva miliona i 20 miliona mikrobijalnih gena. Tako da, na koji god način da posmatramo, veoma su nas brojno nadmašili naši mikrobijalni organizmi u simbiozi. Ispostavilo se da pored tragova našeg ljudskog DNK, takođe ostavljamo tragove našeg mikrobijalnog DNK na svemu što dodirnemo. U studiji od pre nekoliko godina pokazali smo da zapravo možete spariti dlan nečije ruke sa kompjuterskim mišem koji uobičajeno koriste sa preciznošću do čak 95 procenata. Ovo je objavljeno u naučnom časopisu pre nekoliko godina, ali što je još važnije, prikazano je u ''CSI: Miami'', tako da sigurno znate da je tačno. (Smeh)
So where do our microbes come from in the first place? Well if, as I do, you have dogs or kids, you probably have some dark suspicions about that, all of which are true, by the way. So just like we can match you to your computer equipment by the microbes you share, we can also match you up to your dog. But it turns out that in adults, microbial communities are relatively stable, so even if you live together with someone, you'll maintain your separate microbial identity over a period of weeks, months, even years.
Odakle uopšte potiču naši mikrobi? Pa, ako poput mene, imate pse ili decu, verovatno imate neku mračnu sumnju vezanu za to, što je, uzgred rečeno, tačno. Tako da, baš kao što možemo spariti vas i vašu kompjutersku opremu pomoću mikroba koje delite, isto možemo uraditi kada je vaš pas u pitanju. Međutim, ispostavilo se da su kod odraslih, mikrobijalne zajednice relativno stabilne, pa čak iako živite sa nekim, zadržaćete svoj odvojeni mikrobijalni identitet nedeljama, mesecima, pa čak i godinama.
It turns out that our first microbial communities depend a lot on how we're born. So babies that come out the regular way, all of their microbes are basically like the vaginal community, whereas babies that are delivered by C-section, all of their microbes instead look like skin. And this might be associated with some of the differences in health associated with Cesarean birth, such as more asthma, more allergies, even more obesity, all of which have been linked to microbes now, and when you think about it, until recently, every surviving mammal had been delivered by the birth canal, and so the lack of those protective microbes that we've co-evolved with might be really important for a lot of these different conditions that we now know involve the microbiome.
Ispostavilo se da naše prve mikrobijalne zajednice dosta zavise od načina na koji smo rođeni. Tako da kod beba koje su rođene na uobičajen način svi mikrobe su poput vaginalne zajednice, dok kod beba koje su rođene carskim rezom svi mikrobi izgledaju kao koža. Ovo može biti povezano sa nekim razlikama u zdravlju koje se dovode u vezu sa rođenjem putem carskog reza, kao što su učestalija astma, alergije, čak i više gojaznosti, i sve se danas dovode u vezu sa mikrobima, i kada razmislite o tome, do nedavno, svaki preživeli sisar je došao na svet kroz vaginalni kanal, pa nedostatak tih zaštitnih mikroba bez kojih se razvijamo, može biti veoma bitan kada su u pitanju mnoga različita stanja za koja danas znamo da uključuju mikrobe.
When my own daughter was born a couple of years ago by emergency C-section, we took matters into our own hands and made sure she was coated with those vaginal microbes that she would have gotten naturally. Now, it's really difficult to tell whether this has had an effect on her health specifically, right? With a sample size of just one child, no matter how much we love her, you don't really have enough of a sample size to figure out what happens on average, but at two years old, she hasn't had an ear infection yet, so we're keeping our fingers crossed on that one. And what's more, we're starting to do clinical trials with more children to figure out whether this has a protective effect generally.
Kada je moja kćerka rođena pre par godina putem hitnog carskog reza, mi smo uzeli stvar u svoje ruke i osigurali se da bude pokrivena sa tim vaginalnim mikrobima koje bi dobila prirodnim putem. Veoma je teško reći da li je ovo imalo uticaja specifično na njeno zdravlje, zar ne? Vodeći se primerom samo jednog deteta, bez obzira na to koliko je volimo, zapravo nemamo dovoljno uzoraka da zaključimo šta se dešava u proseku, ali sa dve pune godine, još uvek nije imala infekciju uha, tako da se nadamo najboljem. Povrh svega, počinjemo sa kliničkim ispitivanjima s većim brojem dece da bismo zaključili da li to ima zaštitni uticaj uopšteno.
So how we're born has a tremendous effect on what microbes we have initially, but where do we go after that? What I'm showing you again here is this map of the Human Microbiome Project Data, so each point represents a sample from one body site from one of 250 healthy adults. And you've seen children develop physically. You've seen them develop mentally. Now, for the first time, you're going to see one of my colleague's children develop microbially. So what we are going to look at is we're going to look at this one baby's stool, the fecal community, which represents the gut, sampled every week for almost two and a half years. And so we're starting on day one. What's going to happen is that the infant is going to start off as this yellow dot, and you can see that he's starting off basically in the vaginal community, as we would expect from his delivery mode. And what's going to happen over these two and a half years is that he's going to travel all the way down to resemble the adult fecal community from healthy volunteers down at the bottom. So I'm just going to start this going and we'll see how that happens.
To kako smo rođeni ima izuzetan uticaj na mikrobe koje posedujemo u početku, ali šta se dalje dešava? Ovo što vam ponovo pokazujem ovde je mapa Podataka ljudskog mikrobijalnog projekta, tako svaka tačka predstavlja uzorak iz jednog tela, jednog od 250 zdravih odraslih ljudi. Videli ste kako se deca razvijaju fizički. Videli ste kako se razvijaju mentalno. Sada ćete videti, po prvi put, kako se jedno od dece mog saradnika razvija mikrobijalno. Ono što ćemo gledati je stolica ove bebe, fekalna zajednica, koja predstavlja utrobu, sakupljana svake nedelje skoro dve i po godine. Počinjemo sa prvim danom. Novorođenče će početi od ove žute tačke, i možete videti da zapravo počinje u vaginalnoj zajednici, što smo i očekivali po načinu rođenja. Za ove dve i po godine, ono će otputovati skroz dole i počeće da podseća na fekalnu zajednicu odraslih zdravih volontera skroz na dnu. Pokrenuću ovo i videćemo šta se dešava.
What you can see, and remember each step in this is just one week, what you can see is that week to week, the change in the microbial community of the feces of this one child, the differences week to week are much greater than the differences between individual healthy adults in the Human Microbiome Project cohort, which are those brown dots down at the bottom. And you can see he's starting to approach the adult fecal community. This is up to about two years. But something amazing is about to happen here. So he's getting antibiotics for an ear infection. What you can see is this huge change in the community, followed by a relatively rapid recovery. I'll just rewind that for you. And what we can see is that just over these few weeks, we have a much more radical change, a setback of many months of normal development, followed by a relatively rapid recovery, and by the time he reaches day 838, which is the end of this video, you can see that he has essentially reached the healthy adult stool community, despite that antibiotic intervention.
Ovde vidite, i zapamtite da svaki korak predstavlja samo jednu nedelju, možete videti iz nedelje u nedelju da je promena u mikrobijalnoj zajednici fekalija ovog deteta, razlike iz nedelje u nedelju su mnogo veće od razlika između zdravih odraslih ljudi u grupi Ljudskog mikrobijalnog projekta, koji predstavljaju ove braon tačke skroz na dnu. Možete videti da on počinje da se približava fekalnoj zajednici odraslih. Ovo obuhvata oko dve godine. Ali nešto sjajno će se desiti ovde. Dakle, on dobija antibiotike za infekciju uha. Ono sto možete primetiti je ogromna promena u zajednici, praćena relativno brzim oporavkom. Ja ću vam premotati to. Ono što možemo videti je da tokom samo nekoliko nedelja, imamo mnogo značajniju promenu, višemesečni zastoj u normalnom razvoju, praćen relativno brzim oporavkom, a kada dođe 838. dan, što je i kraj ovog videa možete videti da je on u suštini stigao do fekalne zajednice zdravih odraslih osoba, uprkos intervenciji antibioticima.
So this is really interesting because it raises fundamental questions about what happens when we intervene at different ages in a child's life. So does what we do early on, where the microbiome is changing so rapidly, actually matter, or is it like throwing a stone into a stormy sea, where the ripples will just be lost? Well, fascinatingly, it turns out that if you give children antibiotics in the first six months of life, they're more likely to become obese later on than if they don't get antibiotics then or only get them later, and so what we do early on may have profound impacts on the gut microbial community and on later health that we're only beginning to understand. So this is fascinating, because one day, in addition to the effects that antibiotics have on antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which are very important, they may also be degrading our gut microbial ecosystems, and so one day we may come to regard antibiotics with the same horror that we currently reserve for those metal tools that the Egyptians used to use to mush up the brains before they drained them out for embalming.
Ovo je veoma zanimljivo zato što postavlja suštinska pitanja u vezi sa tim šta se dešava kada se umešamo u različitim dobima života deteta. Dakle, da li ono što rano radimo, kada se mikrobi ubrzano menjaju, zapravo utiče, ili je to poput bacanja kamena u uzburkano more, gde će mali talasi samo biti izgubljeni? Fascinantno je to što se ispostavilo da ako deci date antibiotike u prvih šest meseci života, veća je verovatnoća da će kasnije biti gojazni u poređenju s tim ako im tada ne damo antibiotike ili ako im ih damo kasnije, tako da, ono što radimo veoma rano može imati snažan uticaj na crevnu mikrobijalnu zajednicu i buduće zdravlje, što tek počinjemo da razumemo. Ovo je fascinantno jer, jednoga dana, osim efekata koje antibiotici imaju na bakterije koje su otporne na antibiotike, koji su veoma bitni, oni takođe mogu oštetiti nas crevni mikrobijalni ekosistem, tako bismo jednog dana mogli gledati na antibiotike sa istim užasom s kojim danas posmatramo metalno oruđe koje su Egipćani koristili da naprave kašu od mozgova pre nego što bi ih izvadili za balsamovanje.
So I mentioned that microbes have all these important functions, and they've also now, just over the past few years, been connected to a whole range of different diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, heart disease, colon cancer, and even obesity. Obesity has a really large effect, as it turns out, and today, we can tell whether you're lean or obese with 90 percent accuracy by looking at the microbes in your gut. Now, although that might sound impressive, in some ways it's a little bit problematic as a medical test, because you can probably tell which of these people is obese without knowing anything about their gut microbes, but it turns out that even if we sequence their complete genomes and had all their human DNA, we could only predict which one was obese with about 60 percent accuracy. So that's amazing, right? What it means that the three pounds of microbes that you carry around with you may be more important for some health conditions than every single gene in your genome.
Pomenuo sam da mikrobi imaju sve te važne funkcije a sada su takođe, tek tokom poslednjih nekoliko godina, povezivane sa čitavim nizom različitih bolesti, uključujući zapaljenje creva, bolesti srca, rak debelog creva, pa čak i gojaznost. Gojaznost ima veliki uticaj, kako se ispostavilo, i danas možemo zaključiti da li ste mršavi ili gojazni sa preciznošću od 90 procenata, gledajući mikrobe u vašoj utrobi. Iako to može zvučati imresivno, na neki način je možda problematično kao medicinski test jer verovatno možete reći koji od ovih ljudi je gojazan, a da ne znate ništa o mikrobima u njihovim crevima. ali ispostavilo se da, čak iako napravimo niz njihovih kompletnih genoma i ako bismo imali čitav njihov ljudski DNK, mogli bismo predvideti ko je gojazan sa preciznošću od samo 60 procenata. To je neverovatno, zar ne? To znači da su 1,3 kilograma mikroba koje nosite sa sobom, možda važniji za neke bolesti od svakog pojedinog gena u vašem genomu.
And then in mice, we can do a lot more. So in mice, microbes have been linked to all kinds of additional conditions, including things like multiple sclerosis, depression, autism, and again, obesity. But how can we tell whether these microbial differences that correlate with disease are cause or effect? Well, one thing we can do is we can raise some mice without any microbes of their own in a germ-free bubble. Then we can add in some microbes that we think are important, and see what happens. When we take the microbes from an obese mouse and transplant them into a genetically normal mouse that's been raised in a bubble with no microbes of its own, it becomes fatter than if it got them from a regular mouse. Why this happens is absolutely amazing, though. Sometimes what's going on is that the microbes are helping them digest food more efficiently from the same diet, so they're taking more energy from their food, but other times, the microbes are actually affecting their behavior. What they're doing is they're eating more than the normal mouse, so they only get fat if we let them eat as much as they want.
Kada su miševi u pitanju, možemo učiniti mnogo više. Kod miševa, mikrobi su povezani sa raznim vrstama dodatnih bolesti, uključujući sklerozu multipleks, depresiju, autizam, i opet, gojaznost. Ali kako možemo otkriti da li su ove mikrobijalne razlike vezane za bolesti njihov uzrok ili posledica? Mogli bismo da uzgajamo miševe bez ikakvih mikroba koji pripadaju njima, u mehuru bez bacila. Onda možemo ubaciti neke bacile koje smatramo važnima i da vidimo šta se dešava. Kada uzmemo mikrobe iz gojaznog miša i transplantujemo ih u genetski normalnog miša koji je uzgajan u mehuru bez sopstvenih mikroba on postaje još deblji nego da ih je dobio iz običnog miša. Neverovatno je zašto se to događa. Ponekad se dešava da im mikrobi pomažu da efikasnije vare hranu iz istog načina ishrane, tako da dobijaju više energije iz hrane ali u drugim slučajevima, mikrobi zapravo utiču na njihovo ponašanje. Oni jedu više nego normalni miševi. pa se goje samo onoliko koliko im mi dozvolimo da jedu.
So this is really remarkable, right? The implication is that microbes can affect mammalian behavior. So you might be wondering whether we can also do this sort of thing across species, and it turns out that if you take microbes from an obese person and transplant them into mice you've raised germ-free, those mice will also become fatter than if they received the microbes from a lean person, but we can design a microbial community that we inoculate them with that prevents them from gaining this weight.
Ovo je izuzetno, zar ne? Implikacija je da mikrobi mogu uticati na ponašanje sisara. Možda se pitate da li ovako nešto možemo uraditi sa drugim vrstama, i ispostavilo se da ako uzmete mikrobe iz gojazne osobe i transplantujete ih u miša koji je uzgajan bez bacila, ti miševi će takođe postati deblji nego u slučaju da dobiju mikrobe iz mršave osobe, ali možemo da stvorimo mikrobijalnu zajednicu kojom bismo ih zaštitili i koja bi ih sprečila da se ugoje.
We can also do this for malnutrition. So in a project funded by the Gates Foundation, what we're looking at is children in Malawi who have kwashiorkor, a profound form of malnutrition, and mice that get the kwashiorkor community transplanted into them lose 30 percent of their body mass in just three weeks, but we can restore their health by using the same peanut butter-based supplement that is used for the children in the clinic, and the mice that receive the community from the healthy identical twins of the kwashiorkor children do fine. This is truly amazing because it suggests that we can pilot therapies by trying them out in a whole bunch of different mice with individual people's gut communities and perhaps tailor those therapies all the way down to the individual level.
Ovo takođe možemo uraditi i kod neuhranjenosti. Tako da u projektu koji finansira Fondacija Gejts posmatramo decu u Malaviju koja imaju kvašiorkor, ozbiljan oblik neuhranjenosti, i miševi koji dobiju transplantovanu zajednicu kvašiorkora izgube 30 procenata telesne mase za samo tri nedelje, ali možemo obnoviti njihovo zdravlje uz isti dodatak na bazi kikiriki putera, korišćen za decu na klinici, a miševi koji dobiju zajednicu od zdravih identičnih blizanaca dece obolele od kvašiorkoa su dobro. Ovo ja zaista sjajno, jer nam omogućava da prilagođavamo terapije isprobavajući ih na velikom broju različitih miševa, sa crevnim zajednicama pojedinačnih ljudi i možda prilagodimo te terapije za individualne potrebe.
So I think it's really important that everyone has a chance to participate in this discovery. So, a couple of years ago, we started this project called American Gut, which allows you to claim a place for yourself on this microbial map. This is now the largest crowd-funded science project that we know of -- over 8,000 people have signed up at this point. What happens is, they send in their samples, we sequence the DNA of their microbes and then release the results back to them. We also release them, de-identified, to scientists, to educators, to interested members of the general public, and so forth, so anyone can have access to the data. On the other hand, when we do tours of our lab at the BioFrontiers Institute, and we explain that we use robots and lasers to look at poop, it turns out that not everyone wants to know. (Laughter) But I'm guessing that many of you do, and so I brought some kits here if you're interested in trying this out for yourself.
Smatram da je veoma važno da svako dobije šansu da učestvuje u ovom otkriću. Pre par godina započeli smo projekat nazvan Američka utroba koji vam omogućava da zauzmete mesto na mikrobijalnoj mapi. Ovo je sada najveći naučni masovno finansiran projekat koji postoji - trenutno broji preko 8.000 ljudi. Oni šalju svoje uzorke, a mi od njihovih mikroba pravimo DNK nizove i šaljemo im rezultate. Takođe ih, bez identifikacije šaljemo naučnicima, profesorima, zainteresovanima iz javnog sektora, i tako dalje, tako da svako ima pristup podacima. S druge strane, kada pokazujemo našu laboratoriju na Institutu BioFrontiers, i objašnjavamo kako koristimo robote i lasere da proučavamo izmet, ispostavi se da ne žele svi da znaju. (Smeh) Ali pretpostavljam da mnogi od vas žele, pa sam doneo opremu ovde ako ste zainteresovani da ovo probate sami.
So why might we want to do this? Well, it turns out that microbes are not just important for finding out where we are in terms of our health, but they can actually cure disease. This is one of the newest things we've been able to visualize with colleagues at the University of Minnesota. So here's that map of the human microbiome again. What we're looking at now -- I'm going to add in the community of some people with C. diff. So, this is a terrible form of diarrhea where you have to go up to 20 times a day, and these people have failed antibiotic therapy for two years before they're eligible for this trial. So what would happen if we transplanted some of the stool from a healthy donor, that star down at the bottom, into these patients. Would the good microbes do battle with the bad microbes and help to restore their health? So let's watch exactly what happens there. Four of those patients are about to get a transplant from that healthy donor at the bottom, and what you can see is that immediately, you have this radical change in the gut community. So one day after you do that transplant, all those symptoms clear up, the diarrhea vanishes, and they're essentially healthy again, coming to resemble the donor's community, and they stay there. (Applause)
Zašto bismo želeli da radimo ovo? Ispostavilo se da mikrobi ne samo da su važni za otkrivanje našeg zdravstvenog stanja, već mogu zapravo da leče bolesti. Ovo je jedna od najnovijih stvari koje smo uspeli da ostvarimo sa kolegama sa Univerziteta u Minesoti. Evo ponovo te mape ljudskih mikroba. Ono što sada gledamo - sada ću dodati zajednice nekih ljudi sa Klostridijum Dificile. Ovo je užasan oblik dijareje, koja zahteva pražnjenje do 20 puta dnevno, i ovim ljudima nije pomogla terapija antibioticima tokom dve godine pre nego što su se kvalifikovali za ovo testiranje. Šta bi se desilo kad bismo transplantovali deo stolice zdravog davaoca te zvezde na dnu, u ove pacijente? Da li bi se dobri mikrobi borili protiv loših i pomogli da se obnovi njihovo zdravlje? Hajde da vidimo šta se tu tačno dešava. Četiri pacijenta će dobiti transplantaciju od tog zdravog davaoca na dnu. i ono što odmah možete videti je da dolazi do korenite promene u crevnoj zajednici. Tako da jedan dan posle transplantacije svi simptomi nestaju i dijareja prestaje i oni su suštinski ponovo zdravi i počinju da podsećaju na zajednicu davaoca i ostaju takvi. (Aplauz)
So we're just at the beginning of this discovery. We're just finding out that microbes have implications for all these different kinds of diseases, ranging from inflammatory bowel disease to obesity, and perhaps even autism and depression. What we need to do, though, is we need to develop a kind of microbial GPS, where we don't just know where we are currently but also where we want to go and what we need to do in order to get there, and we need to be able to make this simple enough that even a child can use it. (Laughter)
Tek smo na početku ovog otkrića Tek saznajemo da mikrobi imaju implikacije za sve ove različite vrste bolesti od inflamatorne bolesti creva do gojaznosti pa možda čak autizma i depresije. Ono što ipak moramo učiniti je da osmislimo mikrobijalni GPS pomoću kog ne samo da znamo gde smo već i kuda želimo ići i šta moramo uraditi da bismo tamo stigli i to moramo učiniti dovoljno jednostavnim da ga i dete može koristiti. (Smeh)
Thank you.
Hvala.
(Applause)
(Aplauz)