I grew up watching Star Trek. I love Star Trek. Star Trek made me want to see alien creatures, creatures from a far-distant world. But basically, I figured out that I could find those alien creatures right on Earth.
Odrastao sam gledajući Zvezdane staze. Obožavam Zvezdane staze. Zbog Zvezdanih staza sam poželeo da vidim vanzemaljska stvorenja, stvorenja iz jednog dalekog sveta. Ali sam, u suštini, otkrio da ta vanzemaljska bića mogu da nađem i ovde na Zemlji.
And what I do is I study insects. I'm obsessed with insects, particularly insect flight. I think the evolution of insect flight is perhaps one of the most important events in the history of life. Without insects, there'd be no flowering plants. Without flowering plants, there would be no clever, fruit-eating primates giving TED Talks.
I ono što radim jeste da proučavam insekte. Opsednut sam insektima, posebno letom insekata. Mislim da je evolucija letenja insekata možda jedan od najvažnijih događaja u istoriji života. Bez insekata, biljke ne bi cvetale. Bez cvetova, ne bi bilo inteligentnih primata koji jedu voće i drže TED govore.
(Laughter)
(Smeh)
Now, David and Hidehiko and Ketaki gave a very compelling story about the similarities between fruit flies and humans, and there are many similarities, and so you might think that if humans are similar to fruit flies, the favorite behavior of a fruit fly might be this, for example -- (Laughter) but in my talk, I don't want to emphasize on the similarities between humans and fruit flies, but rather the differences, and focus on the behaviors that I think fruit flies excel at doing.
Sada, Dejvid i Hidehiko i Ketaki su ispričali jednu veoma ubedljivu priču o sličnostima između vinskih mušica i ljudi, a postoji mnogo sličnosti, pa biste vi mogli da pomislite da je, ako su ljudi slični vinskim mušicama, primer omiljene aktivnosti vinske mušice, na primer, ovo - (Smeh) ali tokom mog govora ne želim da naglašavam sličnosti među ljudima i vinskim mušicama, već razlike i želim da se fokusiram na ponašanja u kojima su vinske mušice nenadmašive, koliko mislim.
And so I want to show you a high-speed video sequence of a fly shot at 7,000 frames per second in infrared lighting, and to the right, off-screen, is an electronic looming predator that is going to go at the fly. The fly is going to sense this predator. It is going to extend its legs out. It's going to sashay away to live to fly another day. Now I have carefully cropped this sequence to be exactly the duration of a human eye blink, so in the time that it would take you to blink your eye, the fly has seen this looming predator, estimated its position, initiated a motor pattern to fly it away, beating its wings at 220 times a second as it does so. I think this is a fascinating behavior that shows how fast the fly's brain can process information.
Želim da vam pokažem ubrzani snimak mušice, snimljen sa 7.000 kadrova u sekundi, u infracrvenom osvetljenju. Sa desne strane, van ekrana, je skriveni elekronski grabljivac koji planira da napadne mušicu. Mušica će da oseti ovog grabljivca. Ispružiće noge. Odleteće na drugu stranu kako bi preživela da leti još jedan dan. Ja sam pažljivo isekao ovu sekvencu da bude tačno dužine trajanja treptaja ljudskog oka, tako da će za vreme koje bi vam bilo potrebno da trepnete, mušica primetiti preteću grabljivicu, proceniti njenu poziciju, pokrenuti motorički obrazac kako bi odletela, mašući krilima 220 puta u sekundi. Mislim da je ovo fascinantno ponašanje koje pokazuje brzinu kojom je mozak mušice sposoban da obradi informacije.
Now, flight -- what does it take to fly? Well, in order to fly, just as in a human aircraft, you need wings that can generate sufficient aerodynamic forces, you need an engine sufficient to generate the power required for flight, and you need a controller, and in the first human aircraft, the controller was basically the brain of Orville and Wilbur sitting in the cockpit.
Sada, let - šta je potrebno da bismo leteli? Za let, baš kao i na ljudskim letelicama, potrebna su krila koja stvaraju dovoljno aerodinamičke sile, potreban je motor dovoljne jačine da stvori snagu potrebnu za let i potreban je upravljač, koji je u prvoj ljudskoj letelici u suštini bio mozak Orvila i Vilbura koji su sedeli u kokpitu.
Now, how does this compare to a fly? Well, I spent a lot of my early career trying to figure out how insect wings generate enough force to keep the flies in the air. And you might have heard how engineers proved that bumblebees couldn't fly. Well, the problem was in thinking that the insect wings function in the way that aircraft wings work. But they don't. And we tackle this problem by building giant, dynamically scaled model robot insects that would flap in giant pools of mineral oil where we could study the aerodynamic forces. And it turns out that the insects flap their wings in a very clever way, at a very high angle of attack that creates a structure at the leading edge of the wing, a little tornado-like structure called a leading edge vortex, and it's that vortex that actually enables the wings to make enough force for the animal to stay in the air. But the thing that's actually most -- so, what's fascinating is not so much that the wing has some interesting morphology. What's clever is the way the fly flaps it, which of course ultimately is controlled by the nervous system, and this is what enables flies to perform these remarkable aerial maneuvers.
Kako ovo možemo porediti sa mušicom? Na početku svoje karijere, proveo sam dosta vremena pokušavajući da oktrijem kako krila insekta stvaraju dovoljno sile da održe mušice u vazduhu. Možda ste čuli kako su inženjeri dokazali da bumbari ne mogu da lete. Problem je bio u tome što su mislili da krila insekta fukcionišu kao i krila aviona. Ali to nije tako. Prišli smo problemu tako što smo izgradili džinovski, srazmerni model robota insekta koji bi mahao krilima u velikim rezervoarima punim mineralnog ulja gde smo mogli da proučavamo aerodinamičke sile. Ispostavilo se da insekti mašu krilima na veoma domišljat način, pod velikim uglom koji stvara jednu strukturu na vodećoj ivici krila, malu strukturu nalik tornadu, koja se zove vir vodeće ivice, i upravo taj vir omogućava krilima da stvore dovoljno sile kako bi životinja ostala u vazduhu. Ali stvar koja je najfascinantija nije to što krila imaju neku zanimljivu strukturu. Ono što je domišljato jeste način na koji mušica njima maše, što je, naravno, pod kontrolom njihovog nervnog sistema i to je ono što omogućava mušicama da izvedu ove neverovatne vazdušne manevre.
Now, what about the engine? The engine of the fly is absolutely fascinating. They have two types of flight muscle: so-called power muscle, which is stretch-activated, which means that it activates itself and does not need to be controlled on a contraction-by-contraction basis by the nervous system. It's specialized to generate the enormous power required for flight, and it fills the middle portion of the fly, so when a fly hits your windshield, it's basically the power muscle that you're looking at. But attached to the base of the wing is a set of little, tiny control muscles that are not very powerful at all, but they're very fast, and they're able to reconfigure the hinge of the wing on a stroke-by-stroke basis, and this is what enables the fly to change its wing and generate the changes in aerodynamic forces which change its flight trajectory. And of course, the role of the nervous system is to control all this.
A šta je sa motorom? Motor mušice je apsolutno fascinantan. One imaju dve vrste mišića za letenje: takozvane mišiće snage, koji se aktiviraju zatezanjem, što znači da se oni sami aktiviraju i nervni sistem ih ne mora kontrolisati od kontrakcije do kontrakcije. Ovaj mišić se usavršio za stvaranje ogromne snage potrebne za letenje i on se proteže središnjim delom mušice, tako da je u trenutku kada vam ona udari u vetrobran, ono što vidite u stvari snaga tog mišića. Ali pri korenu krila postoji skup malih, sitnih mišića za kontrolu koji uopšte nisu snažni, ali su veoma brzi i oni su sposobni da izmene položaj krila prilikom svakog zamaha i to omogućava mušici da pomera krila i stvara promene u aerodinamičkim silama koje menjaju putanju leta. I naravno, uloga nervnog sistema je kontrola svega ovoga.
So let's look at the controller. Now flies excel in the sorts of sensors that they carry to this problem. They have antennae that sense odors and detect wind detection. They have a sophisticated eye which is the fastest visual system on the planet. They have another set of eyes on the top of their head. We have no idea what they do. They have sensors on their wing. Their wing is covered with sensors, including sensors that sense deformation of the wing. They can even taste with their wings. One of the most sophisticated sensors a fly has is a structure called the halteres. The halteres are actually gyroscopes. These devices beat back and forth about 200 hertz during flight, and the animal can use them to sense its body rotation and initiate very, very fast corrective maneuvers. But all of this sensory information has to be processed by a brain, and yes, indeed, flies have a brain, a brain of about 100,000 neurons.
Hajde da pogledamo kontroler. Mušice imaju razne vrste izvanrednih senzora kojima rešavaju ovaj problem. Imaju antene kojima osećaju mirise i kretanje vetra. Imaju istančano oko koje je najbrži vizuelni sistem na planeti. Imaju još jedan par očiju na vrhu glave. Nemamo pojma za šta ona služe. Imaju senzore na krilima. Krila su im pokrivena senzorima, uključujući i senzore za promene na krilima. Oni čak mogu i da osete ukuse sa krilima. Jedan od najistančanijih senzora na mušici je struktura po imenu "mutilice". Ove mutilice su u stvari žiroskopi. Ovi mehanizmi se kreću napred i nazad brzinom oko 200 herca tokom leta i životinja može da ih upotrebi da oseti rotaciju tela i započne veoma, veoma brze manevre za korekciju. Ali sve ove čulne informacije mora da obradi mozak, i da, zaista, mušice imaju mozak, mozak od oko 100.000 neurona.
Now several people at this conference have already suggested that fruit flies could serve neuroscience because they're a simple model of brain function. And the basic punchline of my talk is, I'd like to turn that over on its head. I don't think they're a simple model of anything. And I think that flies are a great model. They're a great model for flies. (Laughter)
Nekoliko ljudi na ovoj konferenciji je već izjavilo kako vinske mušice mogu da doprinesu neurologiji zbog jednostavnosti funkcija njihovog mozga. I glavna tačka mog govora jeste, da želim da opovrgnem ovu tvrdnju. Ja ne smatram da su one jednostavan model bilo čega. Mislim da su one izvanredan model. One su izvandredan model za mušice. (Smeh)
And let's explore this notion of simplicity. So I think, unfortunately, a lot of neuroscientists, we're all somewhat narcissistic. When we think of brain, we of course imagine our own brain. But remember that this kind of brain, which is much, much smaller — instead of 100 billion neurons, it has 100,000 neurons — but this is the most common form of brain on the planet and has been for 400 million years. And is it fair to say that it's simple? Well, it's simple in the sense that it has fewer neurons, but is that a fair metric? And I would propose it's not a fair metric. So let's sort of think about this. I think we have to compare -- (Laughter) — we have to compare the size of the brain with what the brain can do. So I propose we have a Trump number, and the Trump number is the ratio of this man's behavioral repertoire to the number of neurons in his brain. We'll calculate the Trump number for the fruit fly. Now, how many people here think the Trump number is higher for the fruit fly?
Hajde da ispitamo ovaj pojam jednostavnosti. Mislim da su mnogi neurolozi, nažalost, pomalo narcisoidni. Kada razmišljamo o mozgu, mi, naravno, zamišljamo sopstveni mozak. Ali setite se da je ovo samo jedna vrsta mozga koji je mnogo, mnogo manji - umesto 100 milijardi neurona, on ima 100.000 neurona - ali je ovo najuobičajeniji oblik mozga na planeti i bio je najuobičajeniji 400 miliona godina. Da li je fer onda reći da je jednostavan? Pa, jednostavan je u smislu da ima manje neurona, ali da li je to objektivna mera? Ja bih rekao da nije objektivna. Hajde da porazmislimo o sledećem. Mislim da treba da uporedimo - (Smeh) - da uporedimo veličinu mozga s onim šta mozak može da uradi. Pretpostavimo da postoji određeni broj za Donalda Trampa i da on označava srazmeru obrazaca ponašanja ovog čoveka i broja neurona u njegovom mozgu. Hajde da izračunamo tu brojku i za vinsku mušicu. Koliko vas misli da je ovaj broj veći kod vinske mušice?
(Applause)
(Aplauz)
It's a very smart, smart audience. Yes, the inequality goes in this direction, or I would posit it.
Vi ste veoma pametna publika. Da, znak nejednakosti stoji ovako ili bih ja pretpostavio da tako stoji.
Now I realize that it is a little bit absurd to compare the behavioral repertoire of a human to a fly. But let's take another animal just as an example. Here's a mouse. A mouse has about 1,000 times as many neurons as a fly. I used to study mice. When I studied mice, I used to talk really slowly. And then something happened when I started to work on flies. (Laughter) And I think if you compare the natural history of flies and mice, it's really comparable. They have to forage for food. They have to engage in courtship. They have sex. They hide from predators. They do a lot of the similar things. But I would argue that flies do more. So for example, I'm going to show you a sequence, and I have to say, some of my funding comes from the military, so I'm showing this classified sequence and you cannot discuss it outside of this room. Okay? So I want you to look at the payload at the tail of the fruit fly. Watch it very closely, and you'll see why my six-year-old son now wants to be a neuroscientist. Wait for it. Pshhew. So at least you'll admit that if fruit flies are not as clever as mice, they're at least as clever as pigeons. (Laughter)
Shvatam da je pomalo apsurdno upoređivati obrasce ponašanja čoveka i mušice. Ali hajde da uzmemo jednu drugu životinju za primer. Recimo miša. Miš ima 1000 puta više neurona nego vinska mušica. Ja sam ranije proučavao miševe. I kada sam ih proučavao, imao sam običaj da pričam zaista sporo. I onda se nešto promenilo kada sam počeo da se bavim mušicama. (Smeh) Smatram da ako uporedimo prirodnu istoriju mušica i miševa, postoji sličnost. Oboje moraju da tragaju za hranom. Imaju rituale parenja. Pare se. Skrivaju se od grabljivica. Rade puno sličnih stvari. Ali bih ja rekao da mušice rade više. Pokazaću vam jednu sekvencu za primer, i moram vam napomenuti da deo finansija dobijam od vojske, stoga vam pokazujem ovu poverljivu sekvencu o kojoj ne smete raspravljati van ove prostorije. U redu? Želim da pogledate kolika je nosivost repa vinske mušice. Obratite pažnju i videćete zašto moj šestogodišnji sin odjednom želi da postane neurolog. Čekajte. Fijuu. Priznaćete da iako vinske mušice nisu pametnije od miševa, barem su onoliko pametne koliko i golubovi. (Smeh)
Now, I want to get across that it's not just a matter of numbers but also the challenge for a fly to compute everything its brain has to compute with such tiny neurons. So this is a beautiful image of a visual interneuron from a mouse that came from Jeff Lichtman's lab, and you can see the wonderful images of brains that he showed in his talk. But up in the corner, in the right corner, you'll see, at the same scale, a visual interneuron from a fly. And I'll expand this up. And it's a beautifully complex neuron. It's just very, very tiny, and there's lots of biophysical challenges with trying to compute information with tiny, tiny neurons.
Hteo sam da vam pokažem da nisu u pitanju samo brojevi, nego i izazov za mušicu koja treba da proračuna sve to sa mozgom koji ima tako mali broj neurona. Ovo je jedna lepa slika vizuelnog međuneurona miša koja je potekla iz laboratorije Džefa Lihtmana i na kojoj možete da vidite predivne slike mozga koje je on pokazivao tokom svog govora. Ali gore u uglu, s desne strane, videćete u jednakoj razmeri, međuneuron mušice. Uvećaću vam ovo. To je jedan lep, složen neuron. Samo što je veoma, veoma sitan pa postoji mnogo biofizičkih izazova kada treba sa tako malim, malim neuronima proračunavati informacije.
How small can neurons get? Well, look at this interesting insect. It looks sort of like a fly. It has wings, it has eyes, it has antennae, its legs, complicated life history, it's a parasite, it has to fly around and find caterpillars to parasatize, but not only is its brain the size of a salt grain, which is comparable for a fruit fly, it is the size of a salt grain. So here's some other organisms at the similar scale. This animal is the size of a paramecium and an amoeba, and it has a brain of 7,000 neurons that's so small -- you know these things called cell bodies you've been hearing about, where the nucleus of the neuron is? This animal gets rid of them because they take up too much space. So this is a session on frontiers in neuroscience. I would posit that one frontier in neuroscience is to figure out how the brain of that thing works.
Koliko sitni neuroni mogu da budu? Pogledajte ovog interesantnog insekta. Pomalo liči na mušicu. Ima krila, oči, antene, noge, komplikovanu životnu istoriju, parazit je, mora da leti naokolo i pronalazi gusenice na kojima se hrani, i ne samo da je njegov mozak veličine mrvice soli, što je uporedivo sa vinskom mušicom, nego je i sam veličine mrvice soli. Evo još nekih organizama iste veličine. Ova životinja je veličine paramecijuma i amebe i ima mozak sastavljen od 7000 neurona koji je toliko sitan - znate one stvari o kojima ste več čuli, a koje se zovu tela ćelije i u kojima se nalazi nukleus neurona? Ova životinja ih nema, jer zauzimaju previše mesta. Dakle, ovo je sesija o granicama neurologije. Jedna od njih je, po mom mišljenju, otkrivanje toga kako mozak ove životinje radi.
But let's think about this. How can you make a small number of neurons do a lot? And I think, from an engineering perspective, you think of multiplexing. You can take a hardware and have that hardware do different things at different times, or have different parts of the hardware doing different things. And these are the two concepts I'd like to explore. And they're not concepts that I've come up with, but concepts that have been proposed by others in the past.
Ali porazmslimo o ovome. Kako možemo mali broj neurona naterati da rade mnogo toga? Sa stanovišta inženjera, smatram da ćete pomisliti na kompleksne procese. Uzmete jedan hardver i naterate ga da radi različite stvari u različito vreme ili njegove delove da rade različite stvari. Ovo su dva koncepta koja bih želeo da istražim. Ovo nisu koncepti koje sam ja smislio, nego koncepti koje su drugi predložili u prošlosti.
And one idea comes from lessons from chewing crabs. And I don't mean chewing the crabs. I grew up in Baltimore, and I chew crabs very, very well. But I'm talking about the crabs actually doing the chewing. Crab chewing is actually really fascinating. Crabs have this complicated structure under their carapace called the gastric mill that grinds their food in a variety of different ways. And here's an endoscopic movie of this structure. The amazing thing about this is that it's controlled by a really tiny set of neurons, about two dozen neurons that can produce a vast variety of different motor patterns, and the reason it can do this is that this little tiny ganglion in the crab is actually inundated by many, many neuromodulators. You heard about neuromodulators earlier. There are more neuromodulators that alter, that innervate this structure than actually neurons in the structure, and they're able to generate a complicated set of patterns. And this is the work by Eve Marder and her many colleagues who've been studying this fascinating system that show how a smaller cluster of neurons can do many, many, many things because of neuromodulation that can take place on a moment-by-moment basis. So this is basically multiplexing in time. Imagine a network of neurons with one neuromodulator. You select one set of cells to perform one sort of behavior, another neuromodulator, another set of cells, a different pattern, and you can imagine you could extrapolate to a very, very complicated system.
Jedna od ideja potiče od žvakanja kraba. I ne mislim na to da ja žvaćem krabe. Odrastao sam u Baltimoru i veoma, veoma dobro znam da žvaćem krabe. Govorim o krabama koje žvaću. Žvakanje kraba je u stvari veoma fascinantno. Krabe imaju jednu komplikovanu strukturu ispod svog oklopa koja se zove želudačni mlin koji melje hranu na različite načine. Evo endoskopskog snimka ove strukture. Neverovatna stvar u vezi sa ovim jeste što je ovo pod kontrolom veoma malog skupa neurona, oko dvadesetak njih, koji proizvode veliki broj različitih motornih obrazaca, a razlog zašto je ovo moguće jeste to, što je ovaj mali ganglion u krabi u stvari ispunjen mnogim, mnogim neuromodulatorima. Čuli ste već o neuromodulatorima. Postoji više neuromodulatora koji menjaju, oživljavaju ovu strukturu, nego što ima neurona u strukturi i oni su sposobni da stvore složene skupove šablona. Ovo je rad Iv Marder i njenih kolega koji su proučavali ovaj fascinantan sistem i koji je pokazao kako su mali skupovi neurona sposobni za mnogo, mnogo stvari zbog neuromodulacija koje se mogu desiti svake sekunde. Ovo su u suštini kompleksni procesi u vremenu. Zamislite mrežu neurona s jednim neuromodulatorom. Odaberete jedan skup ćelija zaduženih za jednu vrstu ponašanja, jedan drugi modulator, jedan drugi skup ćelija, različiti šablon i kao što možete da pretpostavite, ovako možete stvoriti jedan veoma, veoma složen sistem.
Is there any evidence that flies do this? Well, for many years in my laboratory and other laboratories around the world, we've been studying fly behaviors in little flight simulators. You can tether a fly to a little stick. You can measure the aerodynamic forces it's creating. You can let the fly play a little video game by letting it fly around in a visual display. So let me show you a little tiny sequence of this. Here's a fly and a large infrared view of the fly in the flight simulator, and this is a game the flies love to play. You allow them to steer towards the little stripe, and they'll just steer towards that stripe forever. It's part of their visual guidance system. But very, very recently, it's been possible to modify these sorts of behavioral arenas for physiologies. So this is the preparation that one of my former post-docs, Gaby Maimon, who's now at Rockefeller, developed, and it's basically a flight simulator but under conditions where you actually can stick an electrode in the brain of the fly and record from a genetically identified neuron in the fly's brain. And this is what one of these experiments looks like. It was a sequence taken from another post-doc in the lab, Bettina Schnell. The green trace at the bottom is the membrane potential of a neuron in the fly's brain, and you'll see the fly start to fly, and the fly is actually controlling the rotation of that visual pattern itself by its own wing motion, and you can see this visual interneuron respond to the pattern of wing motion as the fly flies. So for the first time we've actually been able to record from neurons in the fly's brain while the fly is performing sophisticated behaviors such as flight. And one of the lessons we've been learning is that the physiology of cells that we've been studying for many years in quiescent flies is not the same as the physiology of those cells when the flies actually engage in active behaviors like flying and walking and so forth. And why is the physiology different? Well it turns out it's these neuromodulators, just like the neuromodulators in that little tiny ganglion in the crabs. So here's a picture of the octopamine system. Octopamine is a neuromodulator that seems to play an important role in flight and other behaviors. But this is just one of many neuromodulators that's in the fly's brain. So I really think that, as we learn more, it's going to turn out that the whole fly brain is just like a large version of this stomatogastric ganglion, and that's one of the reasons why it can do so much with so few neurons.
Da li postoji neki dokaz da su mušice sposobne da urade ovo? Dugi niz godina smo u mojoj i drugim laboratorijama širom sveta proučavali ponašanja mušica u malim simulatorima leta. Mušicu je moguće privezati na jedan štapić. I moguće je meriti aerodinamičke sile koje ona stvara. Možete joj dozvoliti da igra video igrice dopuštajući joj da leti naokolo na jednom vizuelnom displeju. Dozvolite mi da vam pokažem jedan deo snimka. Evo mušice i uvećani, infracrveni snimak leta mušice u simulatoru i ovo je igra koju mušica voli da igra. Dozvolili smo im da prate jednu malu prugu i one se kreću ka njoj zauvek. To je deo njihovog sistema za vizuelno upravljanje. Ali od nedavno, moguće je modifikovati ovakve prostore za ispitivanje fiziologije ponašanja. Ovo je projekat jednog od mojih bivših doktoranata, Gebija Mejmona, koji sada radi u Rokfeleru, i to je u suštini simulator leta, ali on omogućava postavljanje jedne elektrode u mozak mušice i snimanje iz perspektive neurona u mušicinom mozgu. Ovako izgleda jedan od ovih eksperimenata. Ovo je snimak jedne druge bivše doktorantkinje u laboratoriji, Betine Šnel. Zelena linija na dnu je membranski potencijal neurona u mozgu mušice i videćete, kada mušica krene da leti i kontroliše promenu vizuelnog šablona pomeranjem sopstvenih krila, možete da vidite reakciju ovog vizuelnog međuneurona na šablon pomeranja krila dok mušica leti. Ovo je bio prvi put kada smo u stvari uspeli da snimamo iz unutrašnjosti u mušicinom mozgu dok je mušica izvršavala sofisticirane kretnje kao što je let. I jedna od lekcija koju smo naučili jeste da je fiziologija ćelija koje smo proučavali dugi niz godina kod mušica u stanju mirovanja, nije ista kao fiziologija tih ćelija kada mušica u stvari vrši određenu akciju kao što je letenje, šetnja i slično. Zašto se fiziologija razlikuje? Ispostavilo se da su u pitanju neuromodulatori, baš kao i neuromodulatori u onom malom ganglionu kod kraba. Evo slike oktopaminskog sistema. Oktopamin je neuromodulator koji igra važnu ulogu pri letu i drugim aktivnostima. Ali ovo je samo jedan od mnogih neuromodulatora koji se nalaze u mozgu mušice. Zaista verujem, da će se, kako budemo napredovali sa saznanjima, ispostaviti da je ceo mozak mušice u stvari jedna veća verzija ovog stomačno-želudačnog gangliona i da je to uzrok tome što sa samo nekoliko neurona možemo da uradimo toliko toga.
Now, another idea, another way of multiplexing is multiplexing in space, having different parts of a neuron do different things at the same time. So here's two sort of canonical neurons from a vertebrate and an invertebrate, a human pyramidal neuron from Ramon y Cajal, and another cell to the right, a non-spiking interneuron, and this is the work of Alan Watson and Malcolm Burrows many years ago, and Malcolm Burrows came up with a pretty interesting idea based on the fact that this neuron from a locust does not fire action potentials. It's a non-spiking cell. So a typical cell, like the neurons in our brain, has a region called the dendrites that receives input, and that input sums together and will produce action potentials that run down the axon and then activate all the output regions of the neuron. But non-spiking neurons are actually quite complicated because they can have input synapses and output synapses all interdigitated, and there's no single action potential that drives all the outputs at the same time. So there's a possibility that you have computational compartments that allow the different parts of the neuron to do different things at the same time.
Jedna druga ideja, jedan drugi način vršenja kompleksnih procesa, jeste njihova prostorna raspodela, zaduživanje različitih vrsta neurona za različite stvari, istovremeno. Evo dve vrste kanonskih neurona kod kičmenjaka i beskičmenjaka. Ljudski piramidalni neuron Ramona i Kahala, i još jedna ćelija sa desne strane međuneurona bez akcionog potencijala. uzetog iz jednog starijeg rada Alena Votsona i Malkolma Burouza. Malkolm Burouz imao je jednu veoma interesantnu ideju zasnovanu na činjenici da ovaj neuron koji potiče iz skakavca ne ispaljuje akcioni potencijal. To je ćelija bez akcionog potencijala. Dakle, obična ćelija, kao što su neuroni u našem mozgu ima oblast nazvanu dendriti, koja prima nadražaje i ti nadražaji se sabiraju i stvaraju akcioni potencijal koji prolazi kroz akson i aktivira izlazne regije neurona. Ali neuroni bez akcionog potencijala su u stvari poprilično složeni, jer su u njima ulazni i izlazni nadražaji povezani i ne postoji jedan jedinstveni akcioni potencijal koji pokreće sve izlazne informacije istovremeno. Zato je moguće da postoje različiti odeljci za obradu informacija, koji dopuštaju različitim delovima neurona da rade različite stvari istovremeno.
So these basic concepts of multitasking in time and multitasking in space, I think these are things that are true in our brains as well, but I think the insects are the true masters of this. So I hope you think of insects a little bit differently next time, and as I say up here, please think before you swat.
Dakle, ovi osnovni principi vršenja kompleksnih radnji u vremenu i prostoru se, mislim, odnose i na naš mozak, ali smatram da su insekti pravi gospodari ove veštine. Nadam se da ćete od sada misliti malo drugačije o insektima i kao što iza mene piše, molim vas, razmislite pre nego što ih spljeskate.
(Applause)
(Aplauz)