I'd like to talk to you today about the human brain, which is what we do research on at the University of California. Just think about this problem for a second. Here is a lump of flesh, about three pounds, which you can hold in the palm of your hand. But it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space. It can contemplate the meaning of infinity, ask questions about the meaning of its own existence, about the nature of God.
Astazi vreau sa va vorbesc despre creierul uman, pe asta facem noi cercetare la Universitatea din California. Ganditi-va la problema asta pentru o secunda. Avem aici o halca de carne, cam de 1,4 kg, pe care o poti tine intr-o mana. Dar aceasta bucata de carne poate contempla imensitatea spatiului interstelar. Poate contempla sensul infinitului, poate pune intrebari despre sensul propriei existente si despre sensul lui Dumnezeu.
And this is truly the most amazing thing in the world. It's the greatest mystery confronting human beings: How does this all come about? Well, the brain, as you know, is made up of neurons. We're looking at neurons here. There are 100 billion neurons in the adult human brain. And each neuron makes something like 1,000 to 10,000 contacts with other neurons in the brain. And based on this, people have calculated that the number of permutations and combinations of brain activity exceeds the number of elementary particles in the universe.
Iar acesta e cel mai uimitor lucru din lume. Este cel mai mare mister cu care se confrunta umanitatea: cum s-a ajuns aici? Ei bine, creierul, asa cum stiti, e format din neuroni. Ne uitam la neuroni aici. In creierul uman adult exista 100 de miliarde de neuroni. Si fiecare neuron creeaza intre 1.000 si 10.000 de contacte cu alti neuroni din creier. Si in functie de asta, oamenii au calculat ca numarul de permutari si combinatii a activitatii creierului este mai mare decat numarul de particule elementare din univers.
So, how do you go about studying the brain? One approach is to look at patients who had lesions in different part of the brain, and study changes in their behavior. This is what I spoke about in the last TED. Today I'll talk about a different approach, which is to put electrodes in different parts of the brain, and actually record the activity of individual nerve cells in the brain. Sort of eavesdrop on the activity of nerve cells in the brain.
Deci, cum incercam sa studiem creierul? O abordare este sa ne uitam la pacienti care au avut leziuni in diferite parti ale creierului si sa studiem modificarile lor de comportament. Despre asta am vorbit la ultima conferinta TED. Astazi voi vorbi despre o abordare diferita. care consta in introducerea de electrozi in diferite parti ale creierului si inregistrarea activitatii celulelor individuale din creier. E o metoda de a trage cu urechea la activitatea celulelor nervoase din creier.
Now, one recent discovery that has been made by researchers in Italy, in Parma, by Giacomo Rizzolatti and his colleagues, is a group of neurons called mirror neurons, which are on the front of the brain in the frontal lobes. Now, it turns out there are neurons which are called ordinary motor command neurons in the front of the brain, which have been known for over 50 years. These neurons will fire when a person performs a specific action. For example, if I do that, and reach and grab an apple, a motor command neuron in the front of my brain will fire. If I reach out and pull an object, another neuron will fire, commanding me to pull that object. These are called motor command neurons that have been known for a long time.
O descoperire care a fost facuta recent de catre cercetatori din Italia, din Parma, de catre Giacomo Rizzalotti si colegii lui, este un grup de neuroni numiti neuroni oglinda care se afla in partea din fata a creierului in lobii frontali. Se pare ca exista niste neuroni numiti neuroni obisnuiti de comanda motorie in partea din fata a creierului care sunt cunoscuti de peste 50 de ani. Acesti neuroni se vor activa cand o persoana executa o anumita actiune. De exemplu, daca fac asta si ma intind sa iau un mar, un neuron de comanda motorie din partea din fata a creierului se va activa. Daca ma intind si trag spre mine un obiect, un alt neuron se va activa, instruindu-ma sa trag acel obiect. Acesti neuroni sunt numiti neuroni de comanda motorie si sunt cunoscuti de foarte multa vreme,
But what Rizzolatti found was a subset of these neurons, maybe about 20 percent of them, will also fire when I'm looking at somebody else performing the same action. So, here is a neuron that fires when I reach and grab something, but it also fires when I watch Joe reaching and grabbing something. And this is truly astonishing. Because it's as though this neuron is adopting the other person's point of view. It's almost as though it's performing a virtual reality simulation of the other person's action.
Dar Rizzalotti a descoperit ca un subset din acesti neuroni, cam 20 la suta din ei, se vor activa si cand ma uit la altcineva care executa aceeasi actiune. Deci, avem aici un neuron care se activeaza cand ma intind si apuc ceva, dar se activeaza si cand ma uit la Joe intinzandu-se si apucand ceva. Iar acest lucru este cu adevarat uimitor. Pentru ca e ca si cum acest neuron adopta punctul de vedere al celeilalte persoane. Este ca si cum ar realiza o simulare intr-o realitate virtuala a actiunilor celeilalte persoane.
Now, what is the significance of these mirror neurons? For one thing they must be involved in things like imitation and emulation. Because to imitate a complex act requires my brain to adopt the other person's point of view. So, this is important for imitation and emulation. Well, why is that important? Well, let's take a look at the next slide. So, how do you do imitation? Why is imitation important? Mirror neurons and imitation, emulation.
Deci, care este semnificatia acestor neuroni oglinda? In primul rand, ei trebuie sa fie implicati in lucruri cum ar fi imitatia si emularea. Pentru ca, pentru a imita actiuni complexe, este necesar ca propriul meu creier sa adopte punctul de vedere al celeilalte persoane. Deci, acesti neuroni sunt importanti pentru imitatie si emulare. Dar de ce este acest lucru important? Pai haideti sa aruncam o privire la urmatorul slide. Deci, cum imitam? De ce e imitatia importanta? Neuronii oglinda si imitatia, emularea.
Now, let's look at culture, the phenomenon of human culture. If you go back in time about [75,000] to 100,000 years ago, let's look at human evolution, it turns out that something very important happened around 75,000 years ago. And that is, there is a sudden emergence and rapid spread of a number of skills that are unique to human beings like tool use, the use of fire, the use of shelters, and, of course, language, and the ability to read somebody else's mind and interpret that person's behavior. All of that happened relatively quickly.
Acum sa ne uitam la cultura, fenomenul de cultura umana, Daca ne intoarcem in timp intre 75.000 si 100.000 de ani in urma, sa ne uitam la evolutia umana. Se pare ca ceva foarte important s-a intamplat acum aproape 75.000 de ani. Si este vorba despre o aparatie subita si o raspandire rapida a unui numar de abilitati unice fiintelor umane cum ar fi folosirea uneltelor, folosirea focului, folosirea adaposturilor si bineinteles limbajul si abilitatea de a citi mintea altcuiva si de a interpreta comportamentul acelei persoane. Toate acestea s-au intamplat relativ rapid.
Even though the human brain had achieved its present size almost three or four hundred thousand years ago, 100,000 years ago all of this happened very, very quickly. And I claim that what happened was the sudden emergence of a sophisticated mirror neuron system, which allowed you to emulate and imitate other people's actions. So that when there was a sudden accidental discovery by one member of the group, say the use of fire, or a particular type of tool, instead of dying out, this spread rapidly, horizontally across the population, or was transmitted vertically, down the generations.
Chiar daca creierul uman a ajuns la marimea sa curenta cam acum 400.000 de ani, acum 100.000 de ani toate acestea s-au intamplat rapid. Iar eu afirm ca ce s-a intamplat a fost aparitia subita a unui sistem sofisticat de neuroni oglinda, care au permis oamenilor sa emuleze si sa imite actiunile altor oameni. Si atunci s-a intamplat ca o descoperire accidentala facuta de catre un membru al grupului, sa zicem folosirea focului, sau un anumit tip de unealta, care, in loc sa dispara, s-a raspandit rapid, orizontal, in randul populatiei, sau a fost transmisa vertical, de-a lungul generatiilor.
So, this made evolution suddenly Lamarckian, instead of Darwinian. Darwinian evolution is slow; it takes hundreds of thousands of years. A polar bear, to evolve a coat, will take thousands of generations, maybe 100,000 years. A human being, a child, can just watch its parent kill another polar bear, and skin it and put the skin on its body, fur on the body, and learn it in one step. What the polar bear took 100,000 years to learn, it can learn in five minutes, maybe 10 minutes. And then once it's learned this it spreads in geometric proportion across a population.
Si asta a facut evolutia, deodata, Lamarckiana, in loc de Darwiniana. Evolutia Darwiniana e lenta, are nevoie de sute de mii de ani. Pentru ca un urs polar sa dezvolte blana e nevoie de mii de generatii, poate 100.000 de ani. O fiinta umana, un copil, poate sa isi priveasca parintii omorand un urs polar, jupuindu-l si punandu-si pielea lui pe corpul lor, blana pe corp, si invatand asta intr-un singur pas. Ceea ce ursului polar i-a luat 100.000 de ani sa invete copilul poate invata in 5 minute, poate 10 minute. Si, odata invatata metoda, aceasta se raspandeste in proportie geometrica in populatie.
This is the basis. The imitation of complex skills is what we call culture and is the basis of civilization. Now there is another kind of mirror neuron, which is involved in something quite different. And that is, there are mirror neurons, just as there are mirror neurons for action, there are mirror neurons for touch. In other words, if somebody touches me, my hand, neuron in the somatosensory cortex in the sensory region of the brain fires. But the same neuron, in some cases, will fire when I simply watch another person being touched. So, it's empathizing the other person being touched.
Acesta este baza. Imitatia abilitatilor complexe este ceea ce numim cultura si este fundamentul civilizatiei. Dar mai este inca un tip de neuron oglinda, care este implicat in ceva total diferit. Adica exista neuroni oglinda care, la fel ca neuronii oglinda pentru miscare, sunt neuroni oglinda pentru atingere. Cu alte cuvinte, daca cineva ma atinge, pe mana, un neuron din cortexul somatosenzorial din regiunea senzoriala a creierului se activeaza. Dar acelasi neuron, se va activa uneori chiar si atunci cand privesc o alta persoana fiind atinsa. Este deci empatizarea cu acea persoana care este atinsa.
So, most of them will fire when I'm touched in different locations. Different neurons for different locations. But a subset of them will fire even when I watch somebody else being touched in the same location. So, here again you have neurons which are enrolled in empathy. Now, the question then arises: If I simply watch another person being touched, why do I not get confused and literally feel that touch sensation merely by watching somebody being touched? I mean, I empathize with that person but I don't literally feel the touch. Well, that's because you've got receptors in your skin, touch and pain receptors, going back into your brain and saying "Don't worry, you're not being touched. So, empathize, by all means, with the other person, but do not actually experience the touch, otherwise you'll get confused and muddled."
Deci, majoritatea neuronilor se vor activa cand sunt atins in diferite locuri. Neuroni diferiti pentru locuri diferite. Dar o parte dintre ei se vor activa cand privesc o alta persoana care este atinsa in acelasi loc. Deci, avem din nou niste neuroni care joaca un rol in empatie. Acum ne punem intrebarea: daca ma uit la o alta persoana cum e atinsa, atunci de ce nu devin confuz si chiar sa simt acea senzatie de atingere doar privind pe altcineva fiind atins? Vreau sa spun ca empatizez cu persoana respectiva, insa nu simt cu adevarat atingerea. Pai asta se intampla din cauza ca avem receptori in piele, receptori de atingere si durere, care sunt conectati la creier si care spun sa nu te ingrijorezi, nu esti atins. Deci poti sa empatizezi cu cealalta persona dar nu o sa simti cu adevarat atingerea pentru ca altfel vei deveni confuz si zapacit.
Okay, so there is a feedback signal that vetoes the signal of the mirror neuron preventing you from consciously experiencing that touch. But if you remove the arm, you simply anesthetize my arm, so you put an injection into my arm, anesthetize the brachial plexus, so the arm is numb, and there is no sensations coming in, if I now watch you being touched, I literally feel it in my hand. In other words, you have dissolved the barrier between you and other human beings. So, I call them Gandhi neurons, or empathy neurons. (Laughter)
Bun, deci exista un semnal de feedback care are precedenta in fata semnalului de la neuronul oglinda, impiedicandu-te sa simti atingerea in mod constient. Dar daca elimini bratul, daca pur si simplu imi anestizez bratul, imi faci o injectie in brat, si anesteziezi plexul brahial, iar bratul meu e amortit si nu mai exista nici un semnal venind de la el, daca acum ma uit la altcineva cand e atins, voi simti senzatia pe bratul meu. Cu alte cuvinte, am dizolvat bariera dintre mine si alte fiinte umane. De asta ii numesc neuroni Ghandi, sau neuroni de empatie. (Rasete)
And this is not in some abstract metaphorical sense. All that's separating you from him, from the other person, is your skin. Remove the skin, you experience that person's touch in your mind. You've dissolved the barrier between you and other human beings. And this, of course, is the basis of much of Eastern philosophy, and that is there is no real independent self, aloof from other human beings, inspecting the world, inspecting other people. You are, in fact, connected not just via Facebook and Internet, you're actually quite literally connected by your neurons. And there is whole chains of neurons around this room, talking to each other. And there is no real distinctiveness of your consciousness from somebody else's consciousness.
Si nu spun asta intr-un sens abstract sau metaforic. Tot ce te separa pe tine de el, de cealalta persoana, este doar pielea. Daca elimini pielea, vei simti atingerea pe care o simte celalalta persoana in propriul creier, Ai dizolvat bariera dintre tine si restul fiintelor umane. Iar acest lucru, evident, este fundamentul unei mari parti a filosofiei Estice. Si anume ca nu exista un 'eu' independent, separat de restul fiintelor umane, inspectand lumea, inspectand alte persoane. Esti de fapt conectat, si nu doar pe Facebook sau pe internet, esti de fapt conectat chiar de proprii neuroni. Si chiar acum exista un lant de neuroni in aceasta incapere, vorbind unii cu altii. Si nu exista o diferentiere reala intre constiinta ta si constiinta altcuiva.
And this is not mumbo-jumbo philosophy. It emerges from our understanding of basic neuroscience. So, you have a patient with a phantom limb. If the arm has been removed and you have a phantom, and you watch somebody else being touched, you feel it in your phantom. Now the astonishing thing is, if you have pain in your phantom limb, you squeeze the other person's hand, massage the other person's hand, that relieves the pain in your phantom hand, almost as though the neuron were obtaining relief from merely watching somebody else being massaged.
Si asta nu e vreo filosofie cu bla-bla. Reiese din simpla intelegere a neurostiintei. Deci avem un pacient cu un membru fantoma. Daca bratul a fost inlaturat si ai un brat fantoma si privesti pe altcineva fiind atins, vei simti atingerea pe bratul fantoma. Un lucru fascinant este ca, daca te doare membrul fantoma, il strangi de mana pe celalalt, faci un masaj mainii celeilalte persoane si asta va reduce durerea din bratul tau fantoma, aproape ca si cum neuronii ar obtine alinare doar uitandu-se la altcineva primind un masaj.
So, here you have my last slide. For the longest time people have regarded science and humanities as being distinct. C.P. Snow spoke of the two cultures: science on the one hand, humanities on the other; never the twain shall meet. So, I'm saying the mirror neuron system underlies the interface allowing you to rethink about issues like consciousness, representation of self, what separates you from other human beings, what allows you to empathize with other human beings, and also even things like the emergence of culture and civilization, which is unique to human beings. Thank you. (Applause)
Si acum ne uitam la ultimul slide. De foarte mult timp oamenii au privit stiintele reale si cele umane in mod distinct. C.P. Snow vorbea de doua culturi: stiintele exacte pe de o parte, cele umane pe de alta, niciodata cele doua nu se vor intalni. Eu spun ca sistemul de neuroni oglinda sta la baza unui interfete, permitandu-ne sa ne gandim din nou la probleme cum ar fi constiinta, reprezentarea eu-ului, ce ne separa pe noi de alte fiinte umane, ce ne permite sa empatizam cu alte fiinte umane, si chiar lucruri cum ar fi aparitia culturii si civilizatiei, care sunt unice fiintelor umane. Multumesc. (Aplauze)