Imagine you're walking through a forest. I'm guessing you're thinking of a collection of trees, what we foresters call a stand, with their rugged stems and their beautiful crowns. Yes, trees are the foundation of forests, but a forest is much more than what you see, and today I want to change the way you think about forests. You see, underground there is this other world, a world of infinite biological pathways that connect trees and allow them to communicate and allow the forest to behave as though it's a single organism. It might remind you of a sort of intelligence.
想像一下,你們正在一片森林中漫步。 我猜你們一定在想一叢叢樹, 我們林務員把那叫作林分, 帶有堅挺的樹幹和美麗的樹冠。 是的,樹木是森林的基礎, 但是一片森林遠不止你見到的那樣, 今天我想要改變你們對森林的看法。 你們看,在地下 有這樣一個另外的世界, 一個有著無限生物路徑 聯繫著樹木,允許它們交流, 允許這片森林像一個有機體 一樣運作的世界。 它可能讓你想到一種智能。
How do I know this? Here's my story. I grew up in the forests of British Columbia. I used to lay on the forest floor and stare up at the tree crowns. They were giants. My grandfather was a giant, too. He was a horse logger, and he used to selectively cut cedar poles from the inland rainforest. Grandpa taught me about the quiet and cohesive ways of the woods, and how my family was knit into it. So I followed in grandpa's footsteps.
我是怎麼知道這種智能的呢? 這就是我的經歷。 我在不列顛哥倫比亞省的 森林中長大。 我過去常常躺在森林覆被上, 向上注視著樹冠。 它們像是巨人。 我的祖父也是個巨人。 他是一位以馬 作為運輸工具的伐木工人, 他過去常常在內陸的熱帶雨林裡 有選擇性地砍伐雪松樹。 祖父教會了我森林 安靜而又協調一致的生活方式, 以及我的家庭是如何融合在其中的。 所以我繼承了我祖父的事業。
He and I had this curiosity about forests, and my first big "aha" moment was at the outhouse by our lake. Our poor dog Jigs had slipped and fallen into the pit. So grandpa ran up with his shovel to rescue the poor dog. He was down there, swimming in the muck. But as grandpa dug through that forest floor, I became fascinated with the roots, and under that, what I learned later was the white mycelium and under that the red and yellow mineral horizons. Eventually, grandpa and I rescued the poor dog, but it was at that moment that I realized that that palette of roots and soil was really the foundation of the forest.
我和他對森林有著好奇心, 而且我第一個恍然大悟的時刻 是在我們湖邊的小茅房那裡。 我們可憐的小狗 Jigs 滑倒 然後掉進了茅坑裡。 所以我的祖父帶著他的鐵鏟 跑去救那隻可憐的小狗。 他在下面那裡,浸泡在污物中。 但是當我的祖父 翻鬆森林覆被的時候, 我被那些樹根吸引了, 在森林覆被下面, 我後來得知,是白色菌絲, 在菌絲下面, 是紅色和黃色的礦質層。 最終,我和我的祖父 救了那隻可憐的小狗, 但是正是在那一刻,我意識到 樹根和土壤的融合 才真正是森林的基礎。
And I wanted to know more. So I studied forestry. But soon I found myself working alongside the powerful people in charge of the commercial harvest. The extent of the clear-cutting was alarming, and I soon found myself conflicted by my part in it. Not only that, the spraying and hacking of the aspens and birches to make way for the more commercially valuable planted pines and firs was astounding. It seemed that nothing could stop this relentless industrial machine.
而且我想更深入地了解。 所以我攻讀了林學。 但是很快我發現自己 和有權人士一起工作 掌管商業收割。 皆伐的程度 令人擔憂, 而且我很快發現我因為 自己在其中扮演的角色而內心鬥爭。 不僅如此,噴灑藥物 以及砍伐山楊樹和樺樹 以便栽種具有更高 商業價值的松樹和冷杉 令人吃驚。 似乎沒什麼可以阻止 這個無休止的工業機器。
So I went back to school, and I studied my other world. You see, scientists had just discovered in the laboratory in vitro that one pine seedling root could transmit carbon to another pine seedling root. But this was in the laboratory, and I wondered, could this happen in real forests? I thought yes. Trees in real forests might also share information below ground. But this was really controversial, and some people thought I was crazy, and I had a really hard time getting research funding. But I persevered, and I eventually conducted some experiments deep in the forest, 25 years ago. I grew 80 replicates of three species: paper birch, Douglas fir, and western red cedar. I figured the birch and the fir would be connected in a belowground web, but not the cedar. It was in its own other world. And I gathered my apparatus, and I had no money, so I had to do it on the cheap. So I went to Canadian Tire --
所以我回到了學校, 我開始研究我的另一個世界。 要知道,科學家剛剛在實驗室裡 在生物體外發現了 一條松樹苗根 可以把碳傳送到 另一條松樹苗根那裡。 但這是在實驗室裡, 我想知道,這能在 真實的森林裡發生嗎? 我想是可以的。 在真實的森林裡的樹木 也許也可以在地下分享信息。 但是這真的很有爭議, 一些人認為我發瘋了, 我的確很難得到研究經費。 但是我堅持不懈, 最後我在森林深處進行了一些實驗, 在 25 年前。 我種植了 80 棵三類樹種的複本: 紙皮樺、黃杉和美西紅側柏。 我發現樺樹和杉樹 會在地下網中聯繫在一起, 但是柏樹不行。 它在自己的另外的世界裡。 然後我準備好我的設備, 因為我沒有錢, 所以我必須以低成本的 方式完成實驗。 所以我去了加拿大輪胎公司──
(Laughter)
(笑聲)
and I bought some plastic bags and duct tape and shade cloth, a timer, a paper suit, a respirator. And then I borrowed some high-tech stuff from my university: a Geiger counter, a scintillation counter, a mass spectrometer, microscopes. And then I got some really dangerous stuff: syringes full of radioactive carbon-14 carbon dioxide gas and some high pressure bottles of the stable isotope carbon-13 carbon dioxide gas. But I was legally permitted.
我買了一些塑膠袋、膠帶、遮光布, 一個計時器、一套紙質防護衣、 和一個防護面罩。 然後我從我的大學 借了一些高科技設備: 一個蓋革計數器、一個閃爍計數器、 一個質譜儀,和顯微鏡。 然後我拿到了一些很危險的東西: 充滿放射性碳 14 二氧化碳氣體的注射器, 和一些高壓瓶子, 裝有穩定的同位素 碳 13 二氧化碳氣體。 但是我是合法的。
(Laughter)
(笑聲)
Oh, and I forgot some stuff, important stuff: the bug spray, the bear spray, the filters for my respirator. Oh well.
哦,我忘了一些東西, 很重要的東西:殺蟲劑, 防熊噴霧,和我的防護面罩的過濾器。 好吧。
The first day of the experiment, we got out to our plot and a grizzly bear and her cub chased us off. And I had no bear spray. But you know, this is how forest research in Canada goes.
實驗的第一天, 我們去了屬於我們的一小塊地, 一隻棕熊和她的小熊 在後面追趕我們。 我沒有防熊噴霧。 但是你們知道的, 在加拿大的森林裡做研究就是這樣的。
(Laughter)
(笑聲)
So I came back the next day, and mama grizzly and her cub were gone. So this time, we really got started, and I pulled on my white paper suit, I put on my respirator, and then I put the plastic bags over my trees. I got my giant syringes, and I injected the bags with my tracer isotope carbon dioxide gases, first the birch. I injected carbon-14, the radioactive gas, into the bag of birch. And then for fir, I injected the stable isotope carbon-13 carbon dioxide gas. I used two isotopes, because I was wondering whether there was two-way communication going on between these species. I got to the final bag, the 80th replicate, and all of a sudden mama grizzly showed up again. And she started to chase me, and I had my syringes above my head, and I was swatting the mosquitos, and I jumped into the truck, and I thought, "This is why people do lab studies."
所以第二天,我又來了, 棕熊媽媽和她的小熊 已經不在那裡了。 所以這次,我們可以真正開始了, 我穿上了白色的紙質防護衣, 我戴上了防護面罩, 然後, 我用塑膠袋包住樹。 我拿出巨大的注射器, 然後我向袋子中注射 示蹤同位素二氧化碳氣體, 先注射到樺樹上。 我把碳 14,放射性氣體, 注射到樺樹的袋子裡。 然後是杉樹, 我給它注射了穩定的 同位素碳 13 二氧化碳氣體。 我用了兩種同位素, 因為我在想, 在這兩類樹種之間是否有雙向的交流。 我進行到最後一個袋子, 第 80 棵樹木複本, 突然,棕熊媽媽又出現了。 她開始在後面追我, 我把注射器舉過頭頂, 我拍打著蚊子,然後跳入了卡車, 我想: 「這就是為什麼人們做實驗室研究。」
(Laughter)
(笑聲)
I waited an hour. I figured it would take this long for the trees to suck up the CO2 through photosynthesis, turn it into sugars, send it down into their roots, and maybe, I hypothesized, shuttle that carbon belowground to their neighbors. After the hour was up, I rolled down my window, and I checked for mama grizzly. Oh good, she's over there eating her huckleberries. So I got out of the truck and I got to work. I went to my first bag with the birch. I pulled the bag off. I ran my Geiger counter over its leaves. Kkhh! Perfect. The birch had taken up the radioactive gas. Then the moment of truth. I went over to the fir tree. I pulled off its bag. I ran the Geiger counter up its needles, and I heard the most beautiful sound. Kkhh! It was the sound of birch talking to fir, and birch was saying, "Hey, can I help you?" And fir was saying, "Yeah, can you send me some of your carbon? Because somebody threw a shade cloth over me." I went up to cedar, and I ran the Geiger counter over its leaves, and as I suspected, silence. Cedar was in its own world. It was not connected into the web interlinking birch and fir.
我等了一個小時。 我想樹木應該需要這麼久的時間 通過光合作用吸收二氧化碳, 把它變成糖類,輸送到它們的根部, 也許,我猜想, 還會在地下把碳輸送給它們的鄰居。 一小時過去了, 我把車窗搖下來, 我看看棕熊媽媽在哪裡。 哦,太好了,她在那邊吃她的黑漿果。 然後我從卡車裡出來,開始工作。 我走到第一個樺樹袋子那裡。 我把袋子拿下來。 我用我的蓋革計數器檢測它的葉子。 咔! 完美。 樺樹已經吸收了放射性氣體。 然後是檢驗真理的時刻。 我走到杉樹那裡。 我拿下它的袋子。 我用蓋革計數器檢測它的針狀葉子, 我聽到了最美的聲音。 咔! 那是樺樹和杉樹交談的聲音, 樺樹在說:「嘿,我可以幫你嗎?」 杉樹回答說:「可以, 你能給我一些碳嗎? 因為有人用一塊遮光布罩住了我。」 我走到柏樹那裡, 我用蓋革計數器檢測它的葉子, 正如我猜測的那樣, 毫無聲音。 柏樹在它自己的世界裡。 它沒有和聯繫著樺樹和杉樹的 網絡聯繫在一起。
I was so excited, I ran from plot to plot and I checked all 80 replicates. The evidence was clear. The C-13 and C-14 was showing me that paper birch and Douglas fir were in a lively two-way conversation. It turns out at that time of the year, in the summer, that birch was sending more carbon to fir than fir was sending back to birch, especially when the fir was shaded. And then in later experiments, we found the opposite, that fir was sending more carbon to birch than birch was sending to fir, and this was because the fir was still growing while the birch was leafless. So it turns out the two species were interdependent, like yin and yang.
我非常激動, 我從一塊地跑到另一塊地, 我檢查了所有 80 顆樹木複本。 證據很明顯。 碳 13 和碳 14 向我證明 紙皮樺和黃杉進行著 熱鬧的雙向對話。 實際上,在那年的那個時候, 在夏天, 樺樹給杉樹輸送的碳 比杉樹輸送給樺樹的要多, 尤其是當杉樹被遮住的時候。 在以後的實驗中, 我們發現了相反的結果, 杉樹給樺樹輸送的碳 比樺樹輸送給杉樹的多, 這是因為杉樹仍然在成長, 然而樺樹已經沒有葉子了。 這證明了這兩種樹是相互依靠的, 像陰和陽一樣。
And at that moment, everything came into focus for me. I knew I had found something big, something that would change the way we look at how trees interact in forests, from not just competitors but to cooperators. And I had found solid evidence of this massive belowground communications network, the other world.
在那一刻,一切對我而言都清晰了。 我知道我有了重大發現, 一些會改變我們看待樹木 在森林中互動方式的發現, 從不僅僅是競爭者, 到合作者。 我找到了可靠的證據 證明這龐大的地下交流系統, 另一個世界。
Now, I truly hoped and believed that my discovery would change how we practice forestry, from clear-cutting and herbiciding to more holistic and sustainable methods, methods that were less expensive and more practical. What was I thinking? I'll come back to that.
此刻,我真心希望並相信 我的發現會改變我們 實踐林學的方式, 從皆伐和大量使用除草劑, 到更全面、可持續的方法, 更廉價但是更實用的方法。 我那時在想什麼? 我等一下會進行說明。
So how do we do science in complex systems like forests? Well, as forest scientists, we have to do our research in the forests, and that's really tough, as I've shown you. And we have to be really good at running from bears. But mostly, we have to persevere in spite of all the stuff stacked against us. And we have to follow our intuition and our experiences and ask really good questions. And then we've got to gather our data and then go verify. For me, I've conducted and published hundreds of experiments in the forest. Some of my oldest experimental plantations are now over 30 years old. You can check them out. That's how forest science works.
我們如何在像森林一樣 複雜的系統中做科研? 嗯,作為森林科學家, 我們必須在森林裡做研究, 那非常艱難, 正如我給你們展示的一樣。 我們必須非常擅長逃離熊的追趕。 但是大部分時間, 我們必須堅持不懈, 即使所有的事情都對我們不利。 而且我們要跟隨我們的直覺和經驗 問一些有價值的問題。 然後我們需要收集數據,證實它們。 對我來說,我已經在樹林裡 進行並發表了數以百計的實驗。 我有一些最老的實驗林地 現在已經超過 30 年了。 你們可以去看看。 那就是森林科學如何進展的。
So now I want to talk about the science. How were paper birch and Douglas fir communicating? Well, it turns out they were conversing not only in the language of carbon but also nitrogen and phosphorus and water and defense signals and allelochemicals and hormones -- information. And you know, I have to tell you, before me, scientists had thought that this belowground mutualistic symbiosis called a mycorrhiza was involved. Mycorrhiza literally means "fungus root." You see their reproductive organs when you walk through the forest. They're the mushrooms. The mushrooms, though, are just the tip of the iceberg, because coming out of those stems are fungal threads that form a mycelium, and that mycelium infects and colonizes the roots of all the trees and plants. And where the fungal cells interact with the root cells, there's a trade of carbon for nutrients, and that fungus gets those nutrients by growing through the soil and coating every soil particle. The web is so dense that there can be hundreds of kilometers of mycelium under a single footstep. And not only that, that mycelium connects different individuals in the forest, individuals not only of the same species but between species, like birch and fir, and it works kind of like the Internet.
現在我想談論一下科學。 紙皮樺和黃杉是怎樣交流的呢? 實際上,它們不僅僅用碳 作為媒介來交流, 而且還用氮和磷 還有水,防禦信號, 等位基因化學物質和激素── 信息。 你們知道,我必須告訴你們, 在我之前,科學家們認為 這種地下的互惠共生,被稱作菌根, 介入其中。 菌根從字面上理解是「菌類的根」。 當你穿過森林的時候, 你可以看見它們的繁殖器官。 它們是蘑菇。 然而蘑菇只是冰山一角, 因為從那些梗中長出來的 是形成菌絲體的真菌絲, 那個菌絲體會影響並且侵蝕 所有樹木和植物的根部。 在真菌細胞和根細胞 相互作用的地方, 會有碳和養份的交換, 而且真菌得到那些養份, 因為它在土壤中生長 並且覆蓋住每一個土壤顆粒。 那個網絡非常密集, 以至可以有長達幾百公里的菌絲體 在一個單一的足跡下面。 而且不僅僅是那樣, 菌絲體連接著森林中不同的個體, 不僅是同一物種的個體, 還有不同物種的個體, 比如樺樹和杉樹, 它工作起來就像網際網路一樣。
You see, like all networks, mycorrhizal networks have nodes and links. We made this map by examining the short sequences of DNA of every tree and every fungal individual in a patch of Douglas fir forest. In this picture, the circles represent the Douglas fir, or the nodes, and the lines represent the interlinking fungal highways, or the links.
要知道,像所有的網絡一樣, 菌根網絡有節點和連結線。 我們做了這個圖, 依據的是一片黃杉森林裡 每棵樹的和每個真菌體的 DNA 的短序列。 在這個圖中,圓圈, 或者是節點,代表黃杉, 直線,或者是連接線, 代表相互連結的真菌幹線。
The biggest, darkest nodes are the busiest nodes. We call those hub trees, or more fondly, mother trees, because it turns out that those hub trees nurture their young, the ones growing in the understory. And if you can see those yellow dots, those are the young seedlings that have established within the network of the old mother trees. In a single forest, a mother tree can be connected to hundreds of other trees. And using our isotope tracers, we have found that mother trees will send their excess carbon through the mycorrhizal network to the understory seedlings, and we've associated this with increased seedling survival by four times.
最大、顏色最深的節點 是最繁忙的節點。 我們把那些稱作樞紐樹, 或者更深情地叫作母親樹, 因為事實證明那些樞紐樹 哺育它們的小樹, 那些長在林下葉層的小樹。 如果你們可以看到那些黃色的小點, 那些就是在年邁的 母親樹網絡中形成的幼苗, 在一片森林中, 一顆母親樹可以聯繫 數以百計其它的樹, 用我們的同位素示蹤器, 我們發現母親樹 會通過真菌菌根網 把它們多餘的碳送到 林下葉層的幼苗那裡, 我們把這個行為 和更高的幼苗存活率聯繫在一起, 高達四倍的存活率。
Now, we know we all favor our own children, and I wondered, could Douglas fir recognize its own kin, like mama grizzly and her cub? So we set about an experiment, and we grew mother trees with kin and stranger's seedlings. And it turns out they do recognize their kin. Mother trees colonize their kin with bigger mycorrhizal networks. They send them more carbon below ground. They even reduce their own root competition to make elbow room for their kids. When mother trees are injured or dying, they also send messages of wisdom on to the next generation of seedlings. So we've used isotope tracing to trace carbon moving from an injured mother tree down her trunk into the mycorrhizal network and into her neighboring seedlings, not only carbon but also defense signals. And these two compounds have increased the resistance of those seedlings to future stresses. So trees talk.
現在,我們知道 我們都偏向自己的孩子, 我想知道, 黃杉能認出它自己的幼苗嗎, 就像棕熊媽媽和她的小熊一樣? 所以我們開始了一個實驗, 我們把母親樹、它的幼苗 和其它樹種的幼苗種在一起。 事實證明它們的確能 認出它們的幼苗。 母親樹用更大的真菌菌根網 佔據自己的幼苗。 它們在地下給自己的幼苗 輸送更多的碳。 它們甚至減少它們自己的根部競爭 來為它們的幼苗創造活動的空間, 當母親樹受傷或者快要枯萎的時候, 它們也把信息智慧 傳送給下一代的幼苗。 我們用了同位素示蹤 來追蹤碳的移動, 從一棵受傷的母親樹 沿著她的樹幹到真菌菌根網 到她附近的幼苗裡, 不僅僅是碳,還有防禦信號。 這兩個混合物 增加了那些幼苗 對未來壓力的抵抗力。 所以樹木能說話。
(Applause)
(掌聲)
Thank you.
謝謝。
Through back and forth conversations, they increase the resilience of the whole community. It probably reminds you of our own social communities, and our families, well, at least some families.
經過反反覆覆地對話, 它們增強了整個團體的適應力。 這可能讓你想起了 我們自己的社會群體, 我們的家庭, 嗯,至少是一些家庭。
(Laughter)
(笑聲)
So let's come back to the initial point. Forests aren't simply collections of trees, they're complex systems with hubs and networks that overlap and connect trees and allow them to communicate, and they provide avenues for feedbacks and adaptation, and this makes the forest resilient. That's because there are many hub trees and many overlapping networks. But they're also vulnerable, vulnerable not only to natural disturbances like bark beetles that preferentially attack big old trees but high-grade logging and clear-cut logging. You see, you can take out one or two hub trees, but there comes a tipping point, because hub trees are not unlike rivets in an airplane. You can take out one or two and the plane still flies, but you take out one too many, or maybe that one holding on the wings, and the whole system collapses.
讓我們回到最初的問題。 森林不僅僅是樹的集合, 它們是複雜的系統, 帶有樞紐和網絡, 彼此覆蓋並且聯繫著樹木, 讓它們可以交流, 這些系統還提供了 反饋和適應的方式, 這讓森林變得適應能力強。 那是因為有很多的樞紐樹 和許多彼此覆蓋的網絡。 但是它們也很脆弱, 不僅會受到自然干擾的影響, 比如特別喜歡侵襲老樹的樹皮甲蟲, 還會受到高強度伐木和皆伐的影響。 要知道,你可以砍掉 一棵或者兩顆樞紐樹, 但凡事都有一個平衡點, 因為樞紐樹就像飛機上的卯釘。 你可以拿走一個或者兩個卯釘, 飛機還能飛, 但是你拿走太多, 或是一個連結機翼的卯釘, 整個系統都會垮掉。
So now how are you thinking about forests? Differently?
那麼現在你是如何看待森林的?
(Audience) Yes.
有點不同了嗎?
(觀眾)是的。
Cool. I'm glad.
太棒了。 我很高興。
So, remember I said earlier that I hoped that my research, my discoveries would change the way we practice forestry. Well, I want to take a check on that 30 years later here in western Canada.
記得我之前說過我希望我的研究, 我的發現會改變 我們實踐林學的方式。 嗯,我想在 30 年後 在加拿大西部這裡檢查一下。
This is about 100 kilometers to the west of us, just on the border of Banff National Park. That's a lot of clear-cuts. It's not so pristine. In 2014, the World Resources Institute reported that Canada in the past decade has had the highest forest disturbance rate of any country worldwide, and I bet you thought it was Brazil. In Canada, it's 3.6 percent per year. Now, by my estimation, that's about four times the rate that is sustainable.
它大概在我們西方 100 千米, 就在班夫國家公園的邊界。 那裡有許多皆伐。 它不是很原始。 在 2004 年,世界資源研究所報導 加拿大在過去十年裡 有世界最高的森林破壞率, 我猜你們認為那個國家是巴西。 在加拿大,破壞率是每年 3.6%。 嗯,據我估計, 那是可持續破壞率的四倍。
Now, massive disturbance at this scale is known to affect hydrological cycles, degrade wildlife habitat, and emit greenhouse gases back into the atmosphere, which creates more disturbance and more tree diebacks.
這種大規模大面積的破壞 很明顯會影響水循環, 惡化野生動物的棲息地, 並且把溫室氣體釋放回大氣中, 這回帶來更多的破壞和更多的回枯。
Not only that, we're continuing to plant one or two species and weed out the aspens and birches. These simplified forests lack complexity, and they're really vulnerable to infections and bugs. And as climate changes, this is creating a perfect storm for extreme events, like the massive mountain pine beetle outbreak that just swept across North America, or that megafire in the last couple months in Alberta.
不僅僅是那樣,我們繼續種植 一種或兩種樹木, 不再種山楊樹和樺樹。 這種簡化的森林缺少多樣性, 它們很容易受被傳染病和蟲害影響。 隨著氣候變化, 這在為極端事件創造一個理想的風暴, 比如大規模的 山地松樹甲蟲蟲災爆發 蔓延了整個北美洲, 或者是過去幾個月在阿爾伯塔的大火。
So I want to come back to my final question: instead of weakening our forests, how can we reinforce them and help them deal with climate change? Well, you know, the great thing about forests as complex systems is they have enormous capacity to self-heal. In our recent experiments, we found with patch-cutting and retention of hub trees and regeneration to a diversity of species and genes and genotypes that these mycorrhizal networks, they recover really rapidly. So with this in mind, I want to leave you with four simple solutions. And we can't kid ourselves that these are too complicated to act on.
所以我想回到最後一個問題: 與其弱化我們的森林, 我們可以怎樣強化它們 並且幫助它們應對氣候變化? 嗯,你們知道的, 森林作為複雜的生態系統最偉大的事情 就是他們有巨大的自我修復能力。 在我們近期的實驗中, 我們發現用小規模砍伐、保護樞紐樹、 恢復物種及基因多樣性 以及基因型再生的方式, 這些真菌菌根網會恢復得很快。 有了這個想法, 我想要留給你們四個簡單的方法。 我們不能欺騙自己這些方法太複雜了 以至於我們沒辦法行動。
First, we all need to get out in the forest. We need to reestablish local involvement in our own forests. You see, most of our forests now are managed using a one-size-fits-all approach, but good forest stewardship requires knowledge of local conditions.
首先,我們都需要去森林裡。 我們需要讓當地人 重新融入我們的森林中。 要知道,我們現在大多數的森林 被單一的方式管理著, 但是好的森林管理 需要關於當地條件的知識。
Second, we need to save our old-growth forests. These are the repositories of genes and mother trees and mycorrhizal networks. So this means less cutting. I don't mean no cutting, but less cutting.
第二,我們需要拯救我們的老齡林。 它們是基因、母親樹 和真菌菌根網的信息庫。 這就意味著減少伐木。 我不是說禁止伐木, 而是說減少伐木。
And third, when we do cut, we need to save the legacies, the mother trees and networks, and the wood, the genes, so they can pass their wisdom onto the next generation of trees so they can withstand the future stresses coming down the road. We need to be conservationists.
第三,當我們伐木的時候, 我們需要挽救樹木的遺存, 母親樹和真菌菌根網, 還有樹林、基因, 以便它們可以把智慧 傳遞給下一代的樹木, 以便它們可以應對 未來即將來臨的壓力。 我們需要成為自然環境保護主義者。
And finally, fourthly and finally, we need to regenerate our forests with a diversity of species and genotypes and structures by planting and allowing natural regeneration. We have to give Mother Nature the tools she needs to use her intelligence to self-heal. And we need to remember that forests aren't just a bunch of trees competing with each other, they're supercooperators.
最後,也是第四點,最後一點, 我們需要讓我們的森林再生, 擁有物種多樣性 基因型多樣性和結構多樣性, 用人工種植和自然再生的方法。 我們必須給予大自然母親 她所需要的的工具, 讓她用智慧來自我治癒。 我們也需要記住 森林不僅僅是一叢叢樹木 彼此競爭著, 它們是超級合作者。
So back to Jigs. Jigs's fall into the outhouse showed me this other world, and it changed my view of forests. I hope today to have changed how you think about forests.
再回到小狗 Jigs。 Jigs 掉進茅坑的那件事 讓我認識到這樣一個另外的世界, 而且它改變了我對森林的看法。 我希望我今天改變了 你們對森林的看法。
Thank you.
謝謝。
(Applause)
(掌聲)