Steve Ramirez: My first year of grad school, I found myself in my bedroom eating lots of Ben & Jerry's watching some trashy TV and maybe, maybe listening to Taylor Swift. I had just gone through a breakup. (Laughter) So for the longest time, all I would do is recall the memory of this person over and over again, wishing that I could get rid of that gut-wrenching, visceral "blah" feeling. Now, as it turns out, I'm a neuroscientist, so I knew that the memory of that person and the awful, emotional undertones that color in that memory, are largely mediated by separate brain systems. And so I thought, what if we could go into the brain and edit out that nauseating feeling but while keeping the memory of that person intact? Then I realized, maybe that's a little bit lofty for now. So what if we could start off by going into the brain and just finding a single memory to begin with? Could we jump-start that memory back to life, maybe even play with the contents of that memory? All that said, there is one person in the entire world right now that I really hope is not watching this talk. (Laughter) So there is a catch. There is a catch. These ideas probably remind you of "Total Recall," "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind," or of "Inception." But the movie stars that we work with are the celebrities of the lab. Xu Liu: Test mice. (Laughter) As neuroscientists, we work in the lab with mice trying to understand how memory works. And today, we hope to convince you that now we are actually able to activate a memory in the brain at the speed of light. To do this, there's only two simple steps to follow. First, you find and label a memory in the brain, and then you activate it with a switch. As simple as that. (Laughter) SR: Are you convinced? So, turns out finding a memory in the brain isn't all that easy. XL: Indeed. This is way more difficult than, let's say, finding a needle in a haystack, because at least, you know, the needle is still something you can physically put your fingers on. But memory is not. And also, there's way more cells in your brain than the number of straws in a typical haystack. So yeah, this task does seem to be daunting. But luckily, we got help from the brain itself. It turned out that all we need to do is basically to let the brain form a memory, and then the brain will tell us which cells are involved in that particular memory. SR: So what was going on in my brain while I was recalling the memory of an ex? If you were to just completely ignore human ethics for a second and slice up my brain right now, you would see that there was an amazing number of brain regions that were active while recalling that memory. Now one brain region that would be robustly active in particular is called the hippocampus, which for decades has been implicated in processing the kinds of memories that we hold near and dear, which also makes it an ideal target to go into and to try and find and maybe reactivate a memory. XL: When you zoom in into the hippocampus, of course you will see lots of cells, but we are able to find which cells are involved in a particular memory, because whenever a cell is active, like when it's forming a memory, it will also leave a footprint that will later allow us to know these cells are recently active. SR: So the same way that building lights at night let you know that somebody's probably working there at any given moment, in a very real sense, there are biological sensors within a cell that are turned on only when that cell was just working. They're sort of biological windows that light up to let us know that that cell was just active. XL: So we clipped part of this sensor, and attached that to a switch to control the cells, and we packed this switch into an engineered virus and injected that into the brain of the mice. So whenever a memory is being formed, any active cells for that memory will also have this switch installed. SR: So here is what the hippocampus looks like after forming a fear memory, for example. The sea of blue that you see here are densely packed brain cells, but the green brain cells, the green brain cells are the ones that are holding on to a specific fear memory. So you are looking at the crystallization of the fleeting formation of fear. You're actually looking at the cross-section of a memory right now. XL: Now, for the switch we have been talking about, ideally, the switch has to act really fast. It shouldn't take minutes or hours to work. It should act at the speed of the brain, in milliseconds. SR: So what do you think, Xu? Could we use, let's say, pharmacological drugs to activate or inactivate brain cells? XL: Nah. Drugs are pretty messy. They spread everywhere. And also it takes them forever to act on cells. So it will not allow us to control a memory in real time. So Steve, how about let's zap the brain with electricity? SR: So electricity is pretty fast, but we probably wouldn't be able to target it to just the specific cells that hold onto a memory, and we'd probably fry the brain. XL: Oh. That's true. So it looks like, hmm, indeed we need to find a better way to impact the brain at the speed of light. SR: So it just so happens that light travels at the speed of light. So maybe we could activate or inactive memories by just using light -- XL: That's pretty fast. SR: -- and because normally brain cells don't respond to pulses of light, so those that would respond to pulses of light are those that contain a light-sensitive switch. Now to do that, first we need to trick brain cells to respond to laser beams. XL: Yep. You heard it right. We are trying to shoot lasers into the brain. (Laughter) SR: And the technique that lets us do that is optogenetics. Optogenetics gave us this light switch that we can use to turn brain cells on or off, and the name of that switch is channelrhodopsin, seen here as these green dots attached to this brain cell. You can think of channelrhodopsin as a sort of light-sensitive switch that can be artificially installed in brain cells so that now we can use that switch to activate or inactivate the brain cell simply by clicking it, and in this case we click it on with pulses of light. XL: So we attach this light-sensitive switch of channelrhodopsin to the sensor we've been talking about and inject this into the brain. So whenever a memory is being formed, any active cell for that particular memory will also have this light-sensitive switch installed in it so that we can control these cells by the flipping of a laser just like this one you see. SR: So let's put all of this to the test now. What we can do is we can take our mice and then we can put them in a box that looks exactly like this box here, and then we can give them a very mild foot shock so that they form a fear memory of this box. They learn that something bad happened here. Now with our system, the cells that are active in the hippocampus in the making of this memory, only those cells will now contain channelrhodopsin. XL: When you are as small as a mouse, it feels as if the whole world is trying to get you. So your best response of defense is trying to be undetected. Whenever a mouse is in fear, it will show this very typical behavior by staying at one corner of the box, trying to not move any part of its body, and this posture is called freezing. So if a mouse remembers that something bad happened in this box, and when we put them back into the same box, it will basically show freezing because it doesn't want to be detected by any potential threats in this box. SR: So you can think of freezing as, you're walking down the street minding your own business, and then out of nowhere you almost run into an ex-girlfriend or ex-boyfriend, and now those terrifying two seconds where you start thinking, "What do I do? Do I say hi? Do I shake their hand? Do I turn around and run away? Do I sit here and pretend like I don't exist?" Those kinds of fleeting thoughts that physically incapacitate you, that temporarily give you that deer-in-headlights look. XL: However, if you put the mouse in a completely different new box, like the next one, it will not be afraid of this box because there's no reason that it will be afraid of this new environment. But what if we put the mouse in this new box but at the same time, we activate the fear memory using lasers just like we did before? Are we going to bring back the fear memory for the first box into this completely new environment? SR: All right, and here's the million-dollar experiment. Now to bring back to life the memory of that day, I remember that the Red Sox had just won, it was a green spring day, perfect for going up and down the river and then maybe going to the North End to get some cannolis, #justsaying. Now Xu and I, on the other hand, were in a completely windowless black room not making any ocular movement that even remotely resembles an eye blink because our eyes were fixed onto a computer screen. We were looking at this mouse here trying to activate a memory for the first time using our technique. XL: And this is what we saw. When we first put the mouse into this box, it's exploring, sniffing around, walking around, minding its own business, because actually by nature, mice are pretty curious animals. They want to know, what's going on in this new box? It's interesting. But the moment we turned on the laser, like you see now, all of a sudden the mouse entered this freezing mode. It stayed here and tried not to move any part of its body. Clearly it's freezing. So indeed, it looks like we are able to bring back the fear memory for the first box in this completely new environment. While watching this, Steve and I are as shocked as the mouse itself. (Laughter) So after the experiment, the two of us just left the room without saying anything. After a kind of long, awkward period of time, Steve broke the silence. SR: "Did that just work?" XL: "Yes," I said. "Indeed it worked!" We're really excited about this. And then we published our findings in the journal Nature. Ever since the publication of our work, we've been receiving numerous comments from all over the Internet. Maybe we can take a look at some of those. ["OMGGGGG FINALLY... so much more to come, virtual reality, neural manipulation, visual dream emulation... neural coding, 'writing and re-writing of memories', mental illnesses. Ahhh the future is awesome"] SR: So the first thing that you'll notice is that people have really strong opinions about this kind of work. Now I happen to completely agree with the optimism of this first quote, because on a scale of zero to Morgan Freeman's voice, it happens to be one of the most evocative accolades that I've heard come our way. (Laughter) But as you'll see, it's not the only opinion that's out there. ["This scares the hell out of me... What if they could do that easily in humans in a couple of years?! OH MY GOD WE'RE DOOMED"] XL: Indeed, if we take a look at the second one, I think we can all agree that it's, meh, probably not as positive. But this also reminds us that, although we are still working with mice, it's probably a good idea to start thinking and discussing about the possible ethical ramifications of memory control. SR: Now, in the spirit of the third quote, we want to tell you about a recent project that we've been working on in lab that we've called Project Inception. ["They should make a movie about this. Where they plant ideas into peoples minds, so they can control them for their own personal gain. We'll call it: Inception."] So we reasoned that now that we can reactivate a memory, what if we do so but then begin to tinker with that memory? Could we possibly even turn it into a false memory? XL: So all memory is sophisticated and dynamic, but if just for simplicity, let's imagine memory as a movie clip. So far what we've told you is basically we can control this "play" button of the clip so that we can play this video clip any time, anywhere. But is there a possibility that we can actually get inside the brain and edit this movie clip so that we can make it different from the original? Yes we can. Turned out that all we need to do is basically reactivate a memory using lasers just like we did before, but at the same time, if we present new information and allow this new information to incorporate into this old memory, this will change the memory. It's sort of like making a remix tape. SR: So how do we do this? Rather than finding a fear memory in the brain, we can start by taking our animals, and let's say we put them in a blue box like this blue box here and we find the brain cells that represent that blue box and we trick them to respond to pulses of light exactly like we had said before. Now the next day, we can take our animals and place them in a red box that they've never experienced before. We can shoot light into the brain to reactivate the memory of the blue box. So what would happen here if, while the animal is recalling the memory of the blue box, we gave it a couple of mild foot shocks? So here we're trying to artificially make an association between the memory of the blue box and the foot shocks themselves. We're just trying to connect the two. So to test if we had done so, we can take our animals once again and place them back in the blue box. Again, we had just reactivated the memory of the blue box while the animal got a couple of mild foot shocks, and now the animal suddenly freezes. It's as though it's recalling being mildly shocked in this environment even though that never actually happened. So it formed a false memory, because it's falsely fearing an environment where, technically speaking, nothing bad actually happened to it. XL: So, so far we are only talking about this light-controlled "on" switch. In fact, we also have a light-controlled "off" switch, and it's very easy to imagine that by installing this light-controlled "off" switch, we can also turn off a memory, any time, anywhere. So everything we've been talking about today is based on this philosophically charged principle of neuroscience that the mind, with its seemingly mysterious properties, is actually made of physical stuff that we can tinker with. SR: And for me personally, I see a world where we can reactivate any kind of memory that we'd like. I also see a world where we can erase unwanted memories. Now, I even see a world where editing memories is something of a reality, because we're living in a time where it's possible to pluck questions from the tree of science fiction and to ground them in experimental reality. XL: Nowadays, people in the lab and people in other groups all over the world are using similar methods to activate or edit memories, whether that's old or new, positive or negative, all sorts of memories so that we can understand how memory works. SR: For example, one group in our lab was able to find the brain cells that make up a fear memory and converted them into a pleasurable memory, just like that. That's exactly what I mean about editing these kinds of processes. Now one dude in lab was even able to reactivate memories of female mice in male mice, which rumor has it is a pleasurable experience. XL: Indeed, we are living in a very exciting moment where science doesn't have any arbitrary speed limits but is only bound by our own imagination. SR: And finally, what do we make of all this? How do we push this technology forward? These are the questions that should not remain just inside the lab, and so one goal of today's talk was to bring everybody up to speed with the kind of stuff that's possible in modern neuroscience, but now, just as importantly, to actively engage everybody in this conversation. So let's think together as a team about what this all means and where we can and should go from here, because Xu and I think we all have some really big decisions ahead of us. Thank you. XL: Thank you. (Applause)
史:諗返我研究生第一年 當時我攤喺床,食好多班傑利雪糕 睇無聊電視 或者聽 Taylor Swift 嘅歌 嗰時我啱啱分咗手 (笑聲) 所以,第一次長時間 我喺度不斷回憶關於呢個人 我希望能夠擺脫呢種自我苦惱 內臟似俾掏空一樣嘅感覺 宜家,我係神經生物學家 因此我知道對舊情人嘅記憶 同記憶中唔舒服嘅感覺 大部分係由兩個唔同嘅腦部系統所介導 所以,我喺度諗 如果我哋可以進入大腦 剪走嗰種令人作嘔嘅感覺 但仍然保持對舊情人嘅完整記憶 咁會點? 然後我認識到,呢個諗法 目前嚟講仲係做唔到 咁我哋係咪可以 由進入大腦、尋找單一記憶著手? 我哋可唔可以將記憶帶返嚟現實生活 甚至操作記憶? 但到呢一刻 我真心希望一個人冇睇到呢場演講 (笑聲) 所以大家要留意返 呢啲諗法或者令你哋諗起 電影《全面回憶》 《暖暖內含光》 或者《盜夢空間》 但同我哋實驗室合作嘅明星 位位都係星光熠熠 劉:佢哋就係實驗室老鼠 (笑聲) 身為神經生物學家 我哋喺實驗室用老鼠 睇下記憶點樣運作 今日,我哋希望令你相信 宜家我哋能夠以光速啟動大腦嘅記憶 為咗令你哋相信 你哋只需要簡單做兩樣嘢 首先,你要搵同埋標記 大腦裏邊嘅一個記憶 然後用開關激活個記憶 就係咁簡單 (笑聲) 史︰你哋信未? 實際上喺大腦裏面搵一個記憶 並唔係咁容易 劉︰冇錯 呢樣比喺禾稈裏面搵一支針仲難 因為至少支針你哋仲可以實在咁掂到 但記憶唔係 而且,大腦裏面嘅細胞數量 多過禾稈裡面嘅雜草數目 的確,個項目睇起嚟幾令人心灰意冷 但係幸運嘅係 我哋由大腦自身獲得幫助 所以我哋要做嘅就只係 畀大腦形成一個記憶 然後大腦會話畀我哋聽 邊啲細胞參與形成記憶 史︰咁當我諗返前度嘅時候 大腦會有咩變化? 如果你唔講人道主義,將我嘅大腦切片 你會發現當我諗返前度時 有非常多嘅大腦區域會被刺激 而其中一個強烈活躍嘅區域係海馬體 一個幾十年嚟被認為 會處理近期同親切記憶嘅區域 所以佢都係一個理想地方 畀人可以進入、尋找同啟動記憶 劉︰當你令用顯微鏡觀察海馬體 唔單止會見到好多細胞 我哋仲能夠搵到 嗰啲參與某個記憶嘅細胞 因為當細胞活動時 例如當細胞建立某種記憶時 細胞會留低痕跡 我哋就可以透過痕跡 知道最近邊啲細胞啟動過 史︰呢樣就好似夜晚寫字樓著咗燈 你會知道有人做緊嘢 同樣細胞都有咁嘅燈 不過叫生物感應器 當細胞做緊嘢嘅時候,生物感應器會著 生物感應器就好似盞燈一樣 畀我哋知道細胞活動 劉︰所以我哋將生物感應器 連接到開關,控制呢啲細胞 我哋將呢個開關擺喺 一個改造過嘅病毒裏面 將病毒注入老鼠大腦 於是當一個記憶形成嗰陣 任何參與在內嘅細胞 都會裝上呢個開關 史︰例如,呢個就係海馬體 建立咗一個恐懼記憶之後嘅樣 呢張相藍色部分就係密集嘅腦細胞 而呢啲綠色嘅腦細胞 就係參與形成恐懼記憶 你哋宜家睇到嘅 係恐懼快速形成嘅過程 正確啲嚟講係記憶嘅橫切面 劉︰我哋一直討論緊嘅開關需要快 佢唔可以花幾分鐘或者幾個鐘去做到 佢應該以大腦嘅速度去做 即係以幾微秒為限 史︰劉,咁你點睇? 我哋可唔可以用,例如藥物 啟動或者熄咗大腦細胞? 劉︰唔得。因為藥物會擴散,好麻煩 而且藥物作用係永遠嘅 所以我哋唔能夠用藥物即時控制記憶 咁史蒂夫,用電控制大腦你覺得點? 史︰電非常之快 但係我哋未必可以將電帶到 負責某個記憶嘅細胞當中 我哋甚至乎會灼傷大腦 劉︰哦。 的確係 所以我哋應該搵更好嘅方法 以光速進入大腦細胞 史︰正因為光本身就有光速 或者我哋可以用光 嚟到激活同熄咗記憶 劉︰光速非常快 而且由於正常嘅大腦細胞對光冇反應 因此嗰啲對光有反應嘅細胞 就係含有光敏感開關嘅細胞 為咗令呢啲細胞對激光有反應 我哋首先要呃腦細胞 劉:你哋冇聽錯 我哋嘗試將激光射入大腦 (笑聲) 我哋靠嘅技術就係光遺傳學 光遺傳學畀咗光敏感開關我哋 令我哋能夠啟動或者熄咗腦細胞 而呢個光敏感開關個名 叫做光敏感通道 就係嗰啲黏著腦細胞嘅綠色小點 你哋可以將光敏感通道 當做一種對光敏感 可以俾人安裝入腦細胞嘅開關 所以,宜家我哋可以簡單襟個開關 啟動或熄咗腦細胞 喺呢個情況,我哋用光脈衝開開關 劉︰我哋將呢種 光敏感通道嘅光敏感開關 擺喺生物感應器上,並注入大腦 當一個記憶形成嘅時候 有份形成嗰個記憶嘅細胞 都會有呢個光敏感開關 咁樣我哋就可以 通過照射激光控制呢啲細胞 史︰宜家就係測試所有嘢嘅時間 我哋能夠做嘅就係 將老鼠放入一個咁嘅盒 然後輕微點擊老鼠足部 令老鼠對呢個盒產生一個恐懼記憶 令佢哋知道盒入面有唔好嘅嘢發生 喺老鼠嘅海馬體裏面 形成呢一個記憶嘅活躍細胞 都會有光敏感通道 劉︰當你有一隻老鼠咁細 你會覺得成個世界都喺度想捉你 所以,你最好嘅防衛 係收埋自己、唔被發現 當老鼠處於恐懼狀態 就會表現出呢一種典型行為 即係呆喺盒嘅角落唔郁 呢一種狀態我哋稱之為「靜止」 如果老鼠記得個盒有唔好嘅事發生 而我哋將佢哋放返同一個盒時 佢哋本能反應就係靜止唔郁 咁係因為佢哋唔想俾盒裡面 任何潛在嘅威脅物發現 史︰因此,你哋可以將「靜止」 諗成你喺街行,腦裡面諗著自己嘅嘢 然後幾乎要撞到你嘅前女友或者前男友 喺呢兩秒裏面 你會諗︰我做咩好?打招呼? 同佢握手? 抑或轉身走? 我係咪應該坐喺度扮唔存在? 呢啲突然喺腦海出現嘅諗法 令你無法控制自己嘅身體 令你暫時流露出孤獨無助嘅表情 劉︰但係,如果你將老鼠 放喺一個完全唔一樣嘅新籠裡面 好似跟著落嚟呢個咁 老鼠就唔會驚呢個籠 因為老鼠冇理由去驚呢個新環境 但如果我哋將老鼠放喺新籠裡面 同時用我哋用激光啟動恐懼記憶嘅話 會發生啲咩? 我哋係咪可以喺一個 完全唔一樣嘅環境裏面 喚醒返老鼠對第一個籠嘅恐懼記憶? 史︰呢個係價值百萬美元嘅實驗 宜家我哋講返當日嘅記憶 我記得嗰日波士頓紅襪隊贏咗比賽 嗰日又係一個生機勃勃嘅春天日子 極適合喺河邊散步 同埋去 North End 買一啲甜酥卷 另一方面,我同劉 喺一個冇窗、全黑嘅房裡面 眼球郁都唔動 因為隻眼郁嘅話離遠睇似係眨眼 所以我哋眼都冇眨咁望著電腦螢幕 我哋喺度望緊隻老鼠 嘗試第一次用我哋嘅技術 去啟動一個記憶 劉︰呢個就係我哋睇到嘅 當我哋第一次將老鼠放入呢個籠 老鼠會探索,聞嘢,周圍走,做自己嘢 因為老鼠天生係好好奇嘅動物 佢哋想知道,呢個新嘅籠有乜嘢 老鼠好得意 但當我哋啟動激光嘅一刻 就好似你宜家睇到咁 老鼠即刻進入靜止狀態 老鼠呆咗,唔郁 好明顯,老鼠定咗型 睇起上嚟,我哋做到 將第一個籠嘅恐懼記憶帶到去新環境 當我哋睇到結果,史蒂夫同我都震驚咗 就好似隻老鼠一樣 (笑聲) 實驗完咗之後,我哋離開間房 冇講過嘢 經過好長又尷尬嘅一段時間 史蒂夫終於打破沉默 史︰我當時話「我哋嘅技術係得嘅? 」 劉:我話「係,真係得咗! 」 我哋對結果都非常激動 然後我哋將個發現刊登喺自然期刊度 自從發表咗我哋嘅研究之後 我哋喺網上收到好多留言 我哋可以睇其中一啲 [ 天啊。最後…有咁多嘢!虛幻科技、神經控制、視覺夢想嘅再現、 神經編碼、「寫同重寫記憶 」、精神疾病。將來係咁好嘅。] 史︰首先你會注意到啲人 對呢項研究有好強烈嘅意見 宜家,我開始非常認同 第一個人嘅樂觀睇法 因為相對於Morgan Freeman 嘅評論 呢個係我有生以嚟聽到最好嘅讚美說話 (笑聲) 但係就好似你哋睇到嘅一樣 呢個並唔係唯一嘅意見 [ 太不可思議啦…如果佢哋可以喺幾年內 將呢種技術應用到人身上會點? 天啊!我哋命中註定係咁。] 劉︰如果我哋睇睇第二個留言 我諗我哋全部人都覺得 嗰個人講嘅嘢冇咁正面 但呢樣都提醒我哋 雖然我哋宜家仍然以老鼠做實驗對象 但我哋確實應該開始思考同討論 記憶控制帶嚟嘅道德爭議 史︰透過第三個留言 我想話畀你哋聽一個 我哋最近喺實驗室開展嘅項目 叫「盜夢空間」 [「佢哋應該整一部關於呢樣嘢嘅電影。當佢哋將記憶植入人嘅意識裏面, 佢哋就能夠控制人,從而達到個人利益。佢哋就能夠控制人,從而達到個人利益。 所以我哋開始諗 雖然我哋可以重啟一個記憶 但如果我哋唔小心 改造咗個記憶,咁點呢? 我哋會唔會將個記憶 變成一個錯誤嘅記憶? 劉︰所有記憶都係複雜而且有動態變化 但我哋可以簡單將記憶當成係一齣電影 正如我哋一路所講嘅 我哋可以控制電影嘅播放掣 所以我哋可以隨時隨地播呢部電影 但有冇可能我哋可以 進入大腦編輯呢部電影 令佢同原本有唔同? 係,我哋可以做到 我哋需要做嘅只係 用我哋之前用過嘅激光 重新啟動一個記憶 但係如果我哋同時將新嘅資訊 擺落去舊嘅記憶當中 舊嘅記憶會改變 就好似整混合錄音咁 史︰咁我哋點樣做呢? 與其喺大腦搵到恐懼記憶 我哋可以喺動物裏面搵 即係我哋將動物放入 一個咁樣嘅藍色籠裡面 我哋喺動物個腦裏面 搵返代表藍色籠嘅腦細胞 然後我哋令呢啲腦細胞對光有反應 同我哋之前做嘅一模一樣 第二日,我哋可以將動物放入 一個佢哋從來冇遇過嘅紅色籠 我哋可以向佢哋大腦照射激光 重啟佢哋對藍色籠嘅記憶 咁當動物諗返藍色籠嘅嘢時 我哋對佢哋輕微電擊幾次,會點呢? 我哋就嘗試人為咁 令藍色籠嘅記憶同電擊關連起嚟 我哋想將兩樣嘢連埋一齊 為咗證實我哋成功 我哋再將老鼠放入藍色籠 我哋今次只係重啟老鼠對藍色籠嘅記憶 但老鼠卻感覺到足部有微弱電擊 然後佢哋突然靜止唔郁 所以就算實際上冇電擊都好 老鼠始終記返起被電擊 因此,老鼠形成咗一個錯誤嘅記憶 因為技術上嚟講 佢哋驚錯咗一個冇電擊嘅環境 劉︰目前為止,我哋只係討論咗 呢種用光控制嘅開掣 其實我哋都有光控制嘅閂掣 而且我哋可以好容易想像到 通過安裝呢種光控制嘅閂掣 我哋可以隨時隨地閂咗一個記憶 我哋今日所講嘅嘢 都係基於神經科學一條哲學性嘅原理 就係,思想睇起嚟好神秘 但佢實際上係由物質組成 兼可以俾我哋利用嘅嘢 史︰我見到一個世界 我哋可以重新啟動任何我哋鍾意嘅記憶 我仲見到一個世界 我哋可以抹走我哋唔想要嘅記憶 宜家,我甚至見到 記憶編輯已經成為現實中嘅一部分 因為我哋生活嘅時代 已經有可能將科幻小說裡邊嘅問題 通過實驗將佢哋帶到嚟現實世界 劉︰宜家,我哋實驗室嘅人員 同全世界嘅人員 都用緊類似嘅方法啟動或者編輯記憶 無論嗰啲記憶係舊、新、正面、負面 ——總之所有類型嘅記憶 等我哋能夠了解記憶係點樣運作嘅 史︰例如,我哋實驗室嘅一個團隊 發現咗形成恐懼記憶嘅腦細胞 並將嗰啲腦細胞轉化成快樂記憶 就好似嗰個咁 嗰個就係我想講嘅編輯過程 宜家,實驗室人員 甚至可以喺雄性老鼠當中 啟動佢哋對雌性老鼠嘅記憶 有流傳話人員有好愉快嘅經歷 劉︰我哋正生活喺一個好開心嘅時刻 因為呢一刻科學除咗受制於 我哋嘅想像力之外,就再冇限制 史︰最後,我哋做到啲咩呢? 我哋點樣繼續發展呢一個技術? 呢啲問題唔應該剩係留返畀 實驗室嘅人解答 我哋今日演講嘅目的就係令所有人 知道現代神經科學有可能嘅事 但宜家重要嘅係 令所有人都參與個討論 等我哋好似一個團隊咁一齊諗下 神經科學可以做到啲咩 我哋可以點樣繼續往前走 因為劉同我都認為 我哋所有人面前都有一啲重大決定要做 史、劉︰多謝 (鼓掌)