Other people. Everyone is interested in other people. Everyone has relationships with other people, and they're interested in these relationships for a variety of reasons. Good relationships, bad relationships, annoying relationships, agnostic relationships, and what I'm going to do is focus on the central piece of an interaction that goes on in a relationship. So I'm going to take as inspiration the fact that we're all interested in interacting with other people, I'm going to completely strip it of all its complicating features, and I'm going to turn that object, that simplified object, into a scientific probe, and provide the early stages, embryonic stages of new insights into what happens in two brains while they simultaneously interact.
Drugi ljudi. Svi su zainteresirani za druge ljude. Svi imaju odnose s drugim ljudima i zainteresirani su za te odnose iz brojnih razloga. Dobri odnosi, loši odnosi, dosadni odnosi, agnostični odnosi, a ono na što ću se ja fokusirati je središnji komad interakcije koji se odvija u odnosu. Kao inspiraciju ću uzeti činjenicu da smo svi zainteresirani za interakciju s drugim ljudima. Potpuno ću ogoliti sva komplicirana svojstva i formirati taj predmet, taj pojednostavljen predmet u znanstveno istraživanje i omogućiti rane faze, embrionalne faze novih spoznaja o tome što se događa u dva mozga za vrijeme njihove simultane interakcije.
But before I do that, let me tell you a couple of things that made this possible. The first is we can now eavesdrop safely on healthy brain activity. Without needles and radioactivity, without any kind of clinical reason, we can go down the street and record from your friends' and neighbors' brains while they do a variety of cognitive tasks, and we use a method called functional magnetic resonance imaging. You've probably all read about it or heard about in some incarnation. Let me give you a two-sentence version of it. So we've all heard of MRIs. MRIs use magnetic fields and radio waves and they take snapshots of your brain or your knee or your stomach, grayscale images that are frozen in time. In the 1990s, it was discovered you could use the same machines in a different mode, and in that mode, you could make microscopic blood flow movies from hundreds of thousands of sites independently in the brain. Okay, so what? In fact, the so what is, in the brain, changes in neural activity, the things that make your brain work, the things that make your software work in your brain, are tightly correlated with changes in blood flow. You make a blood flow movie, you have an independent proxy of brain activity.
No prije no što to učinim, dopustite mi da vam ispričam nekoliko stvari koje su ovo učinile mogućim. Prva je da sada možemo sa sigurnošću osluškivati aktivnost zdravog mozga. Bez igala i radioaktivnosti, bez ikakvog kliničkog razloga možemo ići niz ulicu i snimiti mozgove vaših prijatelja i susjeda dok obavljaju niz kognitivnih zadataka i koristimo metodu pod nazivom funkcionalna magnetska rezonanca. Svi ste vjerojatno čitali o tome ili čuli u nekom obliku. Dat ću vam verziju toga u dvije rečenice. Dakle, svi smo čuli za MR. MR koristi magnetska polja i radio valove kojima se uzimaju snimci vašeg mozga, koljena ili želuca, sive slike koje su zamrznute u vremenu. U devedesetima je otkriveno da možete koristiti iste aparate na drugačiji način i na taj način možete napraviti filmove mikroskopskog protoka krvi iz stotinu i tisuću samostalnih dijelova u mozgu. U redu, pa što onda? Zapravo, stvar je u tome da se u mozgu mijenja neurološka aktivnost, stvari koje tjeraju vaš mozak na rad, stvari koje tjeraju vaš software na rad u vašem mozgu usko su povezane s promjenama u krvotoku. Snimite film o protoku krvi i imate nezavisnog zastupnika aktivnosti mozga.
This has literally revolutionized cognitive science. Take any cognitive domain you want, memory, motor planning, thinking about your mother-in-law, getting angry at people, emotional response, it goes on and on, put people into functional MRI devices, and image how these kinds of variables map onto brain activity. It's in its early stages, and it's crude by some measures, but in fact, 20 years ago, we were at nothing. You couldn't do people like this. You couldn't do healthy people. That's caused a literal revolution, and it's opened us up to a new experimental preparation. Neurobiologists, as you well know, have lots of experimental preps, worms and rodents and fruit flies and things like this. And now, we have a new experimental prep: human beings. We can now use human beings to study and model the software in human beings, and we have a few burgeoning biological measures.
Ovo je doslovno revolucionaliziralo kognitivnu znanost. Uzmite bilo koje kognitivno područje koje želite, pamćenje, motoričko planiranje, razmišljanje o vašoj punici, ljutnja na ljude, emocionalni odgovor, to jednostavno traje i stavite ljude u uređaje za funkcionalni MR i vidjet ćete kako se ove vrste varijabli mapiraju u moždanu aktivnost. To je u svojim ranim stadijima i veoma je primitivno u nekim mjerama, ali zapravo prije 20 godina nismo bili nigdje. Niste mogli ovako obraditi ljude. Niste mogli obraditi zdrave ljude. To je uzrokovalo doslovnu revoluciju i otvorilo nas novim eksperimentalnim pripravcima. Neurobiolozi, kao što dobro znate, imaju mnogo eksperimentalnih pripravaka, crva, glodavaca, vinskih mušica i stvari poput toga. A sada mi imamo nove eksperimentalne pripravke: ljudska bića. Sada možemo upotrijebiti ljudska bića kako bismo proučili i modelirali software u ljudskim bićima i imamo nekoliko rastućih bioloških mjera.
Okay, let me give you one example of the kinds of experiments that people do, and it's in the area of what you'd call valuation. Valuation is just what you think it is, you know? If you went and you were valuing two companies against one another, you'd want to know which was more valuable. Cultures discovered the key feature of valuation thousands of years ago. If you want to compare oranges to windshields, what do you do? Well, you can't compare oranges to windshields. They're immiscible. They don't mix with one another. So instead, you convert them to a common currency scale, put them on that scale, and value them accordingly. Well, your brain has to do something just like that as well, and we're now beginning to understand and identify brain systems involved in valuation, and one of them includes a neurotransmitter system whose cells are located in your brainstem and deliver the chemical dopamine to the rest of your brain. I won't go through the details of it, but that's an important discovery, and we know a good bit about that now, and it's just a small piece of it, but it's important because those are the neurons that you would lose if you had Parkinson's disease, and they're also the neurons that are hijacked by literally every drug of abuse, and that makes sense. Drugs of abuse would come in, and they would change the way you value the world. They change the way you value the symbols associated with your drug of choice, and they make you value that over everything else.
U redu, dopustite mi da vam dam jedan primjer načina eksperimenata koji ljudi rade i on je u području koje biste nazvali procjenom. Procjena je upravo ono što mislite da je, znate? Ako ste procjenjivali dvije tvrtke jednu naspram druge, voljeli biste znati koja je cjenjenija. Kulture su otkrile ključno svojstvo procjene prije mnogo tisuća godina. Ukoliko želite usporediti naranče s vjetrobranima, što ćete učiniti? Pa, ne možete usporediti naranče s vjetrobranima. Neusporedivi su. Ne miješaju se jedni s drugima. Umjesto toga, pretvorite ih u zajedničku novčanu ljestvicu, stavite ih na tu ljestvicu i procjenjujete ih na odgovarajući način. Vaš mozak mora učiniti nešto poput toga i sada počinjemo razumijevati i identificirati sustave u mozgu uključene u procjenu, a jedan od njih uključuje sustav neurotransmitera čije su stanice smještene u vašem moždanom deblu i dostavljaju kemikaliju dopamin u ostatak vašeg mozga. Neću ići u detalje što se toga tiče, no to je važno otkriće i sada dosta znamo o tome, no to je samo mali dio, ali je važan zato što su to neuroni koje biste izgubili da imate Parkinsonovu bolest i to su također neuroni koji su doslovce ukradeni prilikom svake zlouporabe droge i to ima smisla. Oni mijenjaju način na koji vrednujete simbole udružene s drogom koju ste izabrali i oni vas više od ičega tjeraju da to vrednujete.
Here's the key feature though. These neurons are also involved in the way you can assign value to literally abstract ideas, and I put some symbols up here that we assign value to for various reasons. We have a behavioral superpower in our brain, and it at least in part involves dopamine. We can deny every instinct we have for survival for an idea, for a mere idea. No other species can do that. In 1997, the cult Heaven's Gate committed mass suicide predicated on the idea that there was a spaceship hiding in the tail of the then-visible comet Hale-Bopp waiting to take them to the next level. It was an incredibly tragic event. More than two thirds of them had college degrees. But the point here is they were able to deny their instincts for survival using exactly the same systems that were put there to make them survive. That's a lot of control, okay?
Međutim, ovdje je ključno svojstvo. Ovi neuroni su također uključeni u način na koji možete raspodijeliti procjenu na doslovno apstraktne ideje i staviti neke simbole ovdje gore gdje raspodjeljujemo procjenu iz raznih razloga. Imamo bihevioralnu supermoć u svom mozgu i ona barem dijelom uključuje dopamin. Možemo demantirati svaki instinkt koji imamo za preživljavanjem za idejom, za pukom idejom. Nijedna vrsta to ne može učiniti. 1997. kult Heaven's Gate (Rajska vrata) počinio je masovno samoubojstvo izričeno idejom da postoji svemirski brod koji se skriva na repu tada vidljivog kometa Hale-Bopp koji tamo čeka ne bi li ih odveo na sljedeću razinu. To je bio nevjerojatno tragičan događaj. Više od dvije trećine tih ljudi bilo je visoko obrazovano. No poanta je u tome da su bili u mogućnosti negirati svoje instinkte za preživljavanjem koristeći upravo jednake sustave koji su tamo postavljeni da im omoguće preživljavanje. To je mnogo kontrole, u redu?
One thing that I've left out of this narrative is the obvious thing, which is the focus of the rest of my little talk, and that is other people. These same valuation systems are redeployed when we're valuing interactions with other people. So this same dopamine system that gets addicted to drugs, that makes you freeze when you get Parkinson's disease, that contributes to various forms of psychosis, is also redeployed to value interactions with other people and to assign value to gestures that you do when you're interacting with somebody else.
Jedna stvar koju sam izostavio za vrijeme ovog pričanja je očigledna stvar koja je centar ostatka mog malog govora, a to su drugi ljudi. Isti su procjenjivački sustavi pregrupirani kad procjenjujemo interakcije s drugim ljudima. Isti ovaj sustav dopamina koji nas čini ovisnima o drogama, koji vas zamrzne kad obolite od Parkinsonove bolesti, koji pridonosi brojnim oblicima psihoza također je pregrupiran u vrijednost interakcija s drugim ljudima na dodijeljenu vrijednost pokreta koju činite kad komunicirate s nekim drugim.
Let me give you an example of this. You bring to the table such enormous processing power in this domain that you hardly even notice it.
Da vam dam primjer ovoga. Vi donosite nezamislivo korisnu ogromnu obrađenu moć u ovo područje da to teško uopće zamjećujete.
Let me just give you a few examples. So here's a baby. She's three months old. She still poops in her diapers and she can't do calculus. She's related to me. Somebody will be very glad that she's up here on the screen. You can cover up one of her eyes, and you can still read something in the other eye, and I see sort of curiosity in one eye, I see maybe a little bit of surprise in the other.
Dat ću vam nekoliko primjera. Ovo je dijete. Ima tri mjeseca. Još uvijek kaka u svoje pelene i ne može računati. Povezana je sa mnom. Netko će biti veoma sretan što je ona ovdje na ekranu. Možete pokriti jedno njeno oko i još uvijek iščitati nešto u drugom oku, a ja vidim neku vrstu znatiželje u jednom oku, možda vidim malo iznenađenja u drugom.
Here's a couple. They're sharing a moment together, and we've even done an experiment where you can cut out different pieces of this frame and you can still see that they're sharing it. They're sharing it sort of in parallel. Now, the elements of the scene also communicate this to us, but you can read it straight off their faces, and if you compare their faces to normal faces, it would be a very subtle cue.
Ovdje je jedan par. Dijele zajednički trenutak i čak smo napravili eksperiment gdje možete izvaditi različite komadiće ovog okvira i još uvijek možete vidjeti da ga dijele. Dijele ga u nekoj vrsti paralele. Elementi scene također komuniciraju s nama, ali možete ih pročitati direktno s njihovih lica i ako usporedite njihova lica s normalnim licima to bi bio veoma suptilan trag.
Here's another couple. He's projecting out at us, and she's clearly projecting, you know, love and admiration at him.
Evo još jednog para. On se izbacuje prema nama, a ona očito izbacuje, znate, ljubav i divljenje prema njemu.
Here's another couple. (Laughter) And I'm thinking I'm not seeing love and admiration on the left. (Laughter) In fact, I know this is his sister, and you can just see him saying, "Okay, we're doing this for the camera, and then afterwards you steal my candy and you punch me in the face." (Laughter) He'll kill me for showing that.
Evo još jednog para. (Smijeh) Mislim kako ne vidim ljubav i divljenje s lijeve strane. (Smijeh) Zapravo, znam da mu je ovo sestra i možete vidjeti kako on govori, “U redu, radimo ovo zbog slikanja, a nakon toga ćeš mi ukrasti slatkiš i udariti me u lice.” (Smijeh) Ubit će me zato što vam ovo pokazujem.
All right, so what does this mean? It means we bring an enormous amount of processing power to the problem. It engages deep systems in our brain, in dopaminergic systems that are there to make you chase sex, food and salt. They keep you alive. It gives them the pie, it gives that kind of a behavioral punch which we've called a superpower.
U redu, što ovo znači? Znači da problemu dajemo ogromnu količinu obrađene moći. To uključuje duboke sustave u našem mozgu, u našim dopaminskim sustavima koji su ovdje kako bi vas natjerali da želite seks, hranu i sol. Oni vas drže živima. Daju vam pitu, daju vam tu vrstu bihevioralnog udarca koji smo mi nazvali supermoći.
So how can we take that and arrange a kind of staged social interaction and turn that into a scientific probe? And the short answer is games. Economic games. So what we do is we go into two areas. One area is called experimental economics. The other area is called behavioral economics. And we steal their games. And we contrive them to our own purposes. So this shows you one particular game called an ultimatum game. Red person is given a hundred dollars and can offer a split to blue. Let's say red wants to keep 70, and offers blue 30. So he offers a 70-30 split with blue. Control passes to blue, and blue says, "I accept it," in which case he'd get the money, or blue says, "I reject it," in which case no one gets anything. Okay? So a rational choice economist would say, well, you should take all non-zero offers. What do people do? People are indifferent at an 80-20 split. At 80-20, it's a coin flip whether you accept that or not. Why is that? You know, because you're pissed off. You're mad. That's an unfair offer, and you know what an unfair offer is. This is the kind of game done by my lab and many around the world. That just gives you an example of the kind of thing that these games probe. The interesting thing is, these games require that you have a lot of cognitive apparatus on line. You have to be able to come to the table with a proper model of another person. You have to be able to remember what you've done. You have to stand up in the moment to do that. Then you have to update your model based on the signals coming back, and you have to do something that is interesting, which is you have to do a kind of depth of thought assay. That is, you have to decide what that other person expects of you. You have to send signals to manage your image in their mind. Like a job interview. You sit across the desk from somebody, they have some prior image of you, you send signals across the desk to move their image of you from one place to a place where you want it to be. We're so good at this we don't really even notice it. These kinds of probes exploit it. Okay?
Dakle, kako to možemo uzeti i dogovoriti neku vrstu predstavljene socijalne interakcije i pretvoriti to u znanstvenu sondu? Kratak odgovor su igrice. Ekonomske igrice. Ono što radimo jest da idemo u dva područja. Jedno područje se naziva eksperimentalna ekonomija. Drugo područje se zove bihevioralna ekonomija. Mi krademo njihove igrice. Mi smo ih izmislili za vlastite namjene. Ovo vam pokazuje jednu određenu igricu pod nazivom igra ultimatuma. Crvenoj osobi ponuđeno je sto dolara i ona to može podijeliti s plavom osobom na dva dijela. Recimo da crvena želi zadržati 70, a plavoj nudi 30. Dakle, ona nudi dijeljenje na 70-30 s plavom. Kontrola prelazi na plavu i plava kaže, “Prihvaćam.” u čijem slučaju bi onda dobila novac ili plava kaže “Odbijam.” u čijem slučaju nitko ne dobiva ništa. U redu? Racionalan izbor, rekli bi ekonomisti, bi bio da biste trebali prihvatiti bilo kakve ponude koje ne uključuju nulu. Što ljudi rade? Ljudi su nezainteresirani za dijeljenja na 80-20. Na 80-20 imate bacanje novčića bez obzira prihvatili vi to ili ne. Zašto je tome tako? Znate, zato što ste bijesni. Ljuti ste. To nije poštena ponuda, a vi znate što je nepoštena ponuda. To je vrsta igre koju je napravio moj laboratorij i mnogi širom svijeta. To vam samo daje primjer na koji način ove igrice ispituju stvar. Zanimljivo je da te igrice trebaju mnogo simultanih kognitivnih aparata. Morate biti u stanju doći do stola s određenim modelom druge osobe. Morate biti u stanju zapamtiti što ste učinili. Morate se suprotstaviti kad je vrijeme za to. Zatim morate dopuniti svoj model baziran na signalima koji se vraćaju i morate učiniti nešto što je zanimljivo, a to je da morate učiniti neku vrstu analize dubine vaših misli. Zapravo, morate odrediti što ta druga osoba očekuje od vas. Morate poslati signale kako biste upravljali svojom slikom u njihovim umovima. Poput razgovora za posao. Sjedite za stolom preko puta nekog, oni imaju neku prvu sliku o vama, a vi šaljete signale preko stola kako biste pomaknuli njihovu sliku vas s jednog mjesta na mjesto gdje želite da bude. Toliko smo dobri u tome da čak ni ne primjećujemo da je tako. Ovakve vrste ispitivanja to iskorištavaju. U redu?
In doing this, what we've discovered is that humans are literal canaries in social exchanges. Canaries used to be used as kind of biosensors in mines. When methane built up, or carbon dioxide built up, or oxygen was diminished, the birds would swoon before people would -- so it acted as an early warning system: Hey, get out of the mine. Things aren't going so well. People come to the table, and even these very blunt, staged social interactions, and they, and there's just numbers going back and forth between the people, and they bring enormous sensitivities to it. So we realized we could exploit this, and in fact, as we've done that, and we've done this now in many thousands of people, I think on the order of five or six thousand. We actually, to make this a biological probe, need bigger numbers than that, remarkably so. But anyway, patterns have emerged, and we've been able to take those patterns, convert them into mathematical models, and use those mathematical models to gain new insights into these exchanges. Okay, so what? Well, the so what is, that's a really nice behavioral measure, the economic games bring to us notions of optimal play. We can compute that during the game. And we can use that to sort of carve up the behavior.
Radeći ovo, otkrili smo da su ljudi doslovce kanarinci u socijalnim izmjenama. Kanarinci su bili poznati kao vrsta biosenzora u rudnicima. Kada bi se metan nakupio ili ugljik dioksid ili je ponestalo kisika, ptice bi se onesvijestile prije ljudi -- to je bio rani znak sustava: Hej, bježite iz rudnika. Stvari ne idu baš dobro. Ljudi dolaze do stola i čak i te veoma tupe, dogovorene socijalne interakcije, i oni, i tu su samo brojevi koji idu naprijed i natrag među ljudima, a oni daju ogromnu osjetljivost tome. Shvatili smo da to možemo iskorištavati i zapravo, kako smo to učinili, a učinili smo to sada mnogim tisućama ljudi, mislim da govorimo o pet ili šest tisuća. Mi zapravo, kako bismo napravili ovo biološko ispitivanje trebamo veći broj od ovog, baš neobično. Kako god, modeli su izronili i bili smo u mogućnosti uzeti sve modele kako bismo dobili nov uvid u ove razmjene. U redu, pa što onda? Poanta je da je to veoma lijepo bihevioralno mjerenje, ekonomske igrice nam donose pojam optimalne igre. Možemo to procijeniti tijekom igre. To možemo upotrijebiti kako bismo na neki način isklesali ponašanje.
Here's the cool thing. Six or seven years ago, we developed a team. It was at the time in Houston, Texas. It's now in Virginia and London. And we built software that'll link functional magnetic resonance imaging devices up over the Internet. I guess we've done up to six machines at a time, but let's just focus on two. So it synchronizes machines anywhere in the world. We synchronize the machines, set them into these staged social interactions, and we eavesdrop on both of the interacting brains. So for the first time, we don't have to look at just averages over single individuals, or have individuals playing computers, or try to make inferences that way. We can study individual dyads. We can study the way that one person interacts with another person, turn the numbers up, and start to gain new insights into the boundaries of normal cognition, but more importantly, we can put people with classically defined mental illnesses, or brain damage, into these social interactions, and use these as probes of that. So we've started this effort. We've made a few hits, a few, I think, embryonic discoveries. We think there's a future to this. But it's our way of going in and redefining, with a new lexicon, a mathematical one actually, as opposed to the standard ways that we think about mental illness, characterizing these diseases, by using the people as birds in the exchanges. That is, we exploit the fact that the healthy partner, playing somebody with major depression, or playing somebody with autism spectrum disorder, or playing somebody with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, we use that as a kind of biosensor, and then we use computer programs to model that person, and it gives us a kind of assay of this.
Evo što je super stvar. Prije šest ili sedam godina stvorili smo ekipu. U to vrijeme nalazila se u Houstonu u Teksasu. Sada je u Virginiji i Londonu. Napravili smo software koji će povezivati aparate za funkcionalnu magnetnu rezonancu širom interneta. Pretpostavljam da smo napravili nekih šest uređaja u to vrijeme, ali usredotočimo se na samo dva. Dakle, sinkronizira uređaje bilo gdje u svijetu. Mi sinkroniziramo uređaje, postavljamo ih u te predstavljene socijalne interakcije i prisluškujemo oba mozga koji vrše interakciju. Po prvi puta ne moramo gledati samo prosjek pojedinih individua ili imati individue koje igraju igrice na računalu ili pokušati doći do zajedničkih zaključaka na taj način. Možemo proučavati individualne parove. Možemo proučavati način na koji jedna osoba komunicira s drugom osobom, okrenuti brojeve i početi dobivati nove poglede u granice normalne spoznaje, no što je još važnije možemo uključiti ljude s određenim mentalnim bolestima ili oštećenjima mozga u ove socijalne interakcije i upotrijebiti to kao ispitivanja navedenog. Stoga smo krenuli s ovim pokušajem. Dobili smo nekoliko pogodaka, nekoliko, smatram ključnih otkrića. Smatramo kako to ima budućnost. No to je naš način ulaska unutar toga i redefiniranja s novim rječnikom, zapravo s matematičkim rječnikom, nasuprot standardnim načinima na koje razmišljamo o mentalnim bolestima, karakterizirajući ih uz pomoć ljudi umjesto ptica, tj. izrabljujemo činjenicu da zdrav partner, igrajući se s nekim tko boluje od depresije ili igrajući se s nekim tko je autističan ili igrajući se s nekim tko ima poremećaj pažnje, koristimo kao neku vrstu biosenzora, a zatim koristimo računalne programe da bismo modelirali tu osobu i to nam daje neku vrstu ovakve analize.
Early days, and we're just beginning, we're setting up sites around the world. Here are a few of our collaborating sites. The hub, ironically enough, is centered in little Roanoke, Virginia. There's another hub in London, now, and the rest are getting set up. We hope to give the data away at some stage. That's a complicated issue about making it available to the rest of the world. But we're also studying just a small part of what makes us interesting as human beings, and so I would invite other people who are interested in this to ask us for the software, or even for guidance on how to move forward with that.
Ranije smo samo počinjali, postavljali smo web stranice širom svijeta. Ovdje je nekoliko naših suradničkih stranica. Središte je, dovoljno ironično, smješteno u malom gradu Roanoke u Virginiji. Postoji još jedno središte u Londonu, trenutno, a na ostalima se još radi. Nadamo se da ćemo u nekoj fazi moći dati podatke. Komplicirana je stvar učiniti to dostupnim ostatku svijeta, no također proučavamo samo mali dio onoga što nas čini zanimljivima kao ljudskim bićima pa bih želio pozvati druge ljude koji su zainteresirani za to da pitaju za software ili čak i za navođenje u svezi toga kako krenuti dalje s time.
Let me leave you with one thought in closing. The interesting thing about studying cognition has been that we've been limited, in a way. We just haven't had the tools to look at interacting brains simultaneously. The fact is, though, that even when we're alone, we're a profoundly social creature. We're not a solitary mind built out of properties that kept it alive in the world independent of other people. In fact, our minds depend on other people. They depend on other people, and they're expressed in other people, so the notion of who you are, you often don't know who you are until you see yourself in interaction with people that are close to you, people that are enemies of you, people that are agnostic to you. So this is the first sort of step into using that insight into what makes us human beings, turning it into a tool, and trying to gain new insights into mental illness. Thanks for having me. (Applause) (Applause)
Dopustite da vas za kraj ostavim s jednom mišlju. Zanimljiva stvar u vezi proučavanja spoznaje je to da smo na neki način ograničeni. Nismo imali oružje kako bismo simultano mogli gledati mozgove koji komuniciraju. Činjenica je da čak i kada smo sami, potpuno smo društvena bića. Nismo usamljen um izgrađen od svojstava koji bi ga održali živim u svijetu odvojenom od ostalih ljudi. Zapravo, naši umovi ovise o drugim ljudima. Ovise o drugim ljudima i izraženi su kroz druge kao i pojam toga tko ste, često ne znate tko ste dok se ne vidite kako komunicirate s bliskim ljudima, s ljudima koji su vam neprijatelji i s ljudima koji su vam nepoznati. Ovo je prvi korak korištenja uvida u to što nas čini ljudskim bićima, pretvarajući to u oruđe i pokušavajući stvoriti nove uvide u mentalne bolesti. Hvala što ste bili ovdje. (Pljesak) (Pljesak)