If you are a blind child in India, you will very likely have to contend with at least two big pieces of bad news. The first bad news is that the chances of getting treatment are extremely slim to none, and that's because most of the blindness alleviation programs in the country are focused on adults, and there are very, very few hospitals that are actually equipped to treat children. In fact, if you were to be treated, you might well end up being treated by a person who has no medical credentials as this case from Rajasthan illustrates. This is a three-year-old orphan girl who had cataracts. So, her caretakers took her to the village medicine man, and instead of suggesting to the caretakers that the girl be taken to a hospital, the person decided to burn her abdomen with red-hot iron bars to drive out the demons. The second piece of bad news will be delivered to you by neuroscientists, who will tell you that if you are older than four or five years of age, that even if you have your eye corrected, the chances of your brain learning how to see are very, very slim -- again, slim or none.
Če ste slepi otrok v Indiji, se boste morali spoprijeti z vsaj dvema zelo slabima novicama. Prva je, da so možnosti zdravljenja zelo majhne ali nične, saj je večina programov za ublažitev posledic slepote v državi namenjena odraslim in tako je izjemno malo bolnišnic opremljenih za zdravjenje otrok. Če pa pridete do zdravljenja, se lahko zgodi, da bo to v rokah osebe brez zdravniške izobrazbe, kot prikazuje ta primer iz Radžastana. To je triletna osirotela deklica, ki ima sivo mreno. Njeni skrbniki so jo peljali k vaškemu zdravilcu, ki, namesto da bi jim svetoval, naj jo peljejo v bolnišnico, se je odločil žgati njen trebuh z razžarjenimi železnimi palicami, da bi izgnal zle sile. Drugo slabo novico bi izvedeli pri nevrologih, ki bi vam povedali, da če ste starejši od štirih ali pet let, bi, čeprav bi vam ozdravili oči, bila verjetnost možganov, da se naučijo videti, zelo zelo majhna ali nična.
So when I heard these two things, it troubled me deeply, both because of personal reasons and scientific reasons. So let me first start with the personal reason. It'll sound corny, but it's sincere. That's my son, Darius. As a new father, I have a qualitatively different sense of just how delicate babies are, what our obligations are towards them and how much love we can feel towards a child. I would move heaven and earth in order to get treatment for Darius, and for me to be told that there might be other Dariuses who are not getting treatment, that's just viscerally wrong. So that's the personal reason.
Ko sem to izvedel, me je hudo zaskrbelo, tako iz osebnih kot znanstvenih razlogov. Naj začnem z osebno platjo. Zvenelo bo osladno, a je iskreno. To je moj sinček, Darius. Kot mladi očka se precej drugače zavedam, kako občutljivi so dojenčki, kakšne so naše odgovornosti do njih in koliko ljubezni lahko čutimo do otrok. Premaknil bi nebo in zemljo, da bi Dariusu omogočil zdravljenje, in ko sem izvedel, da so tu še drugi Dariusi, ki zdravljenja niso deležni, sem bil globoko prizadet. To je torej osebni razlog.
Scientific reason is that this notion from neuroscience of critical periods -- that if the brain is older than four or five years of age, it loses its ability to learn -- that doesn't sit well with me, because I don't think that idea has been tested adequately. The birth of the idea is from David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel's work, two researchers who were at Harvard, and they got the Nobel Prize in 1981 for their studies of visual physiology, which are remarkably beautiful studies, but I believe some of their work has been extrapolated into the human domain prematurely. So, they did their work with kittens, with different kinds of deprivation regiments, and those studies, which date back to the '60s, are now being applied to human children.
Znanstveni pa je, da me trditev nevrologov o kritičnem obdobju možganov -- možgani, starejši od štirih ali petih let, naj bi izgubili sposobnost učenja -- ni prepričala, saj mislim, da za potrditev ni bila primerno testirana. Ta ideja je plod dela Davida Hubela in Torstena Wiesela, dveh raziskovalcev s Harvarda, dobitnikov Nobelove nagrade leta 1981 za študiji vizualne fiziologije, izjemni in čudoviti študiji, čeprav menim, da je bilo nekaj njunih izsledkov prezgodaj prenešenih v domeno človeškega telesa. Raziskave sta opravljala na mačkah, prikrajšanih na različne načine, izsledki teh raziskav iz šestdesetih let pa so bili prenešeni tudi na človeške otroke.
So I felt that I needed to do two things. One: provide care to children who are currently being deprived of treatment. That's the humanitarian mission. And the scientific mission would be to test the limits of visual plasticity. And these two missions, as you can tell, thread together perfectly. One adds to the other; in fact, one would be impossible without the other. So, to implement these twin missions, a few years ago, I launched Project Prakash. Prakash, as many of you know, is the Sanskrit word for light, and the idea is that in bringing light into the lives of children, we also have a chance of shedding light on some of the deepest mysteries of neuroscience. And the logo -- even though it looks extremely Irish, it's actually derived from the Indian symbol of Diya, an earthen lamp. The Prakash, the overall effort has three components: outreach, to identify children in need of care; medical treatment; and in subsequent study. And I want to show you a short video clip that illustrates the first two components of this work.
Čutil sem, da moram narediti dvoje. Prvič, priskrbeti pomoč otrokom, ki so trenutno prikrajšani za zdravljenje. To je človekoljubno poslanstvo. Znanstveno poslanstvo pa bi bilo testirati meje vizualne plastičnosti. Ti dve poslanstvi, kot lahko vidite, se čudovito prepletata. Eno prispeva k drugemu, pravzaprav sami zase ne bi mogla obstajati. Za namene združitve teh dveh poslanstev sem pred nekaj leti začel Projekt Prakash. Beseda prakash, kot vas veliko ve, v sanskritu pomeni svetlobo, naša zamisel je, da preko osvetljevanja otroških življenj najdemo tudi možnosti osvetljevanja nekaterih najglobljih skrivnosti nevroznanosti. Naš logotip, čeprav je videti zelo irski, pravzaprav izhaja iz indijskega simbola za oljenko, Diyo. V splošnem je cilj Prakasha razdeljen na tri dele: pomoč, iskanje otrok, ki potrebujejo nego; zdravljenje; in posledična študija. Pokazal vam bom kratek posnetek, ki prikazuje prva dva člena našega dela.
This is an outreach station conducted at a school for the blind.
To je center za pomoč, ki jo vodimo na šoli za slepe.
(Text: Most of the children are profoundly and permanently blind ...)
(Večina otrok je hudo slabovidna ali trajno slepa ...)
Pawan Sinha: So, because this is a school for the blind, many children have permanent conditions. That's a case of microphthalmos, which is malformed eyes, and that's a permanent condition; it cannot be treated. That's an extreme of micropthalmos called enophthalmos. But, every so often, we come across children who show some residual vision, and that is a very good sign that the condition might actually be treatable. So, after that screening, we bring the children to the hospital. That's the hospital we're working with in Delhi, the Schroff Charity Eye Hospital. It has a very well-equipped pediatric ophthalmic center, which was made possible in part by a gift from the Ronald McDonald charity. So, eating burgers actually helps.
Pawan Sinha: Ker je to šola za slepe, imamo veliko otrok s trajnimi okvarami. To je primer mikroftalmije, nepravilno razvitih zrkel, ki je trajna in neozdravljiva. To je skrajen primer mikroftalmije, imenovan enoftalmos. A vsake toliko najdemo otroke, ki kažejo znake vidnega zaznavanja, kar je zelo dober znak za možnost uspešnega zdravljenja. Po pregledu otroke pripeljemo v bolnišnico. To je bolnišnica v Delhiju, s katero sodelujemo, bolnišnica Schroff Charity Eye. Tu je zelo dobro opremljen center za otroške očesne bolezni, ki ga je delno omogočila donacija dobrodelne ustanove Ronalda McDonalda. Kot vidite, hitra hrana lahko tudi pomaga.
(Text: Such examinations allow us to improve eye-health in many children, and ... ... help us find children who can participate in Project Prakash.)
(Taki pregledi nam omogočajo izboljšanje očesnega stanja mnogih otrok in ... ... pomagajo nam najti otroke, ki bi postali del Projekta Prakash.)
PS: So, as I zoom in to the eyes of this child, you will see the cause of his blindness. The whites that you see in the middle of his pupils are congenital cataracts, so opacities of the lens. In our eyes, the lens is clear, but in this child, the lens has become opaque, and therefore he can't see the world. So, the child is given treatment. You'll see shots of the eye. Here's the eye with the opaque lens, the opaque lens extracted and an acrylic lens inserted. And here's the same child three weeks post-operation, with the right eye open.
PS: Če približam v oči tega otroka, boste videli razlog njegove slepote. Belina v sredini njegovih zenic je prirojena siva mrena, torej motnost leče. V naših očeh so leče prozorne, pri tem otroku pa so postale motne, zato ne more videti sveta. Omogočimo mu zdravljenje. Videli boste posnetke očesa. Tu je oko z zamegljeno lečo, ki jo odstranimo in nadomestimo z akrilno lečo. To je isti otrok po treh tednih okrevanja po posegu, z odprtim desnim očesom.
(Applause)
(Aplavz)
Thank you.
Hvala.
So, even from that little clip, you can begin to get the sense that recovery is possible, and we have now provided treatment to over 200 children, and the story repeats itself. After treatment, the child gains significant functionality. In fact, the story holds true even if you have a person who got sight after several years of deprivation. We did a paper a few years ago about this woman that you see on the right, SRD, and she got her sight late in life, and her vision is remarkable at this age. I should add a tragic postscript to this -- she died two years ago in a bus accident. So, hers is just a truly inspiring story -- unknown, but inspiring story. So when we started finding these results, as you might imagine, it created quite a bit of stir in the scientific and the popular press. Here's an article in Nature that profiled this work, and another one in Time. So, we were fairly convinced -- we are convinced -- that recovery is feasible, despite extended visual deprivation.
Tako lahko tudi na tem kratkem prikazu vidite, da je zdravljenje možno, in do zdaj smo ga zagotovili že več kot 200 otrokom, zgodba pa se še nadaljuje. Po zdravljenju se otrokova funkcionalnost znatno izboljša. Ta postopek je uspešen tudi pri ljudeh, ki so spregledali po več letih slepote. Pred leti smo pisali o ženski, ki jo vidite na desni, SRD, ki je spregledala v poznih letih in danes je njen vid izjemen. A tu je še tragični del njene zgodbe, pred dvema letoma je umrla v nesreči avtobusa. A njena zgodba je vseeno navdihujoča, čeprav neznana. Ko smo torej prišli do teh rezultatov, smo, kot si lahko predstavljate, precej pretresli znanstveni in poljudni tisk. Tu je članek v znanstvenem tedniku Nature, ki opisuje naše delo, in še en v časniku Time. Bili smo torej trdno prepričani -- smo prepričani -- da je zdravljenje lahko uspešno kljub dolgotrajni slabovidnosti.
The next obvious question to ask: What is the process of recovery? So, the way we study that is, let's say we find a child who has light sensitivity. The child is provided treatment, and I want to stress that the treatment is completely unconditional; there is no quid pro quo. We treat many more children then we actually work with. Every child who needs treatment is treated. After treatment, about every week, we run the child on a battery of simple visual tests in order to see how their visual skills are coming on line. And we try to do this for as long as possible. This arc of development gives us unprecedented and extremely valuable information about how the scaffolding of vision gets set up. What might be the causal connections between the early developing skills and the later developing ones?
Naslednje očitno vprašanje je, kako poteka okrevanje? To preučujemo tako, da najdemo otroka, ki zaznava svetlobo. Otroku priskrbimo zdravljenje, ki, poudarjam, je popolnoma brezpogojno, brez vsakršne protistoritve. Zdravimo veliko več otrok, kot dejansko z njimi delamo. Vsak otrok, ki potrebuje zdravljenje, ga dobi. Po njem približno vsak teden pri otroku izvedemo vrsto preprostih vizualnih testov, da vidimo, kako napredujejo njegove vidne sposobnosti. To poskušamo izvajati kolikor dolgo mogoče. Skozi ta lok razvoja dobimo neverjetne in izjemno važne podatke o tem, kako se sestavlja gradbeni oder vida. Kakšne bi lahko bile naključne povezave med sposobnostmi zgodnjega in poznejšega razvoja vida?
And we've used this general approach to study many different visual proficiencies, but I want to highlight one particular one, and that is image parsing into objects. So, any image of the kind that you see on the left, be it a real image or a synthetic image, it's made up of little regions that you see in the middle column, regions of different colors, different luminances. The brain has this complex task of putting together, integrating, subsets of these regions into something that's more meaningful, into what we would consider to be objects, as you see on the right. And nobody knows how this integration happens, and that's the question we asked with Project Prakash.
Poslužili smo se splošnega pristopa za preučevanje mnogih različnih vizualnih znanj, tu pa želim posebej omeniti eno, in sicer razčlenitev oblik v predmete. Katerakoli podoba, ki jo vidite na levi, tako prava kot sintetična podoba, je sestavljena iz majhnih območij, ki jih vidite na srednji sliki, območij različnih barv ali svetlosti. Možgani imajo zapleteno nalogo, da sestavijo in združijo delce teh območij v nekaj z večjim pomenom, kar mi dojemamo kot predmete, in to vidite na desni. Nihče ne ve, kako to združevanje poteka, zato smo se to vprašali v Projektu Prakash.
So, here's what happens very soon after the onset of sight. Here's a person who had gained sight just a couple of weeks ago, and you see Ethan Myers, a graduate student from MIT, running the experiment with him. His visual-motor coordination is quite poor, but you get a general sense of what are the regions that he's trying to trace out. If you show him real world images, if you show others like him real world images, they are unable to recognize most of the objects because the world to them is over-fragmented; it's made up of a collage, a patchwork, of regions of different colors and luminances. And that's what's indicated in the green outlines. When you ask them, "Even if you can't name the objects, just point to where the objects are," these are the regions that they point to. So the world is this complex patchwork of regions. Even the shadow on the ball becomes its own object. Interestingly enough, you give them a few months, and this is what happens.
To se torej zgodi takoj po začetku vida. Ta moški je spregledal pred le nekaj tedni, ob njem pa je Ethan Myers, podiplomski študent s Tehnološkega inštituta v Massachusettsu, ki izvaja test. Njegova vizualno-motorična usklajenost je precej slaba, a vseeno lahko razumete, katera območja želi pokazati. Če mu pokažemo podobe iz resničnega sveta, prav tako kot njemu podobnim ljudem, ne bo mogel prepoznati večine predmetov, saj je svet zanj preveč razčlenjen; je le sestavljanja, krpanka območij različnih barv in svetlosti. To nakazujejo zelene obrobe. Ko jim rečete, "Tudi če predmetov ne znate imenovati, pokažite, kje so," bodo pokazali na ta območja. Zanje je torej svet ta zapletena sestavljanja območij. Celo senca na žogi postane predmet zase. Zelo zanimivo, pa se po nekaj mesecih zgodi to.
Doctor: How many are these?
Zdravnik: Koliko stvari je tu?
Patient: These are two things.
Pacient: Tu sta dve stvari.
Doctor: What are their shapes?
Zdravnik: Kakšnih oblik sta?
Patient: Their shapes ... This one is a circle, and this is a square.
Pacient: Oblika ... To je krog, in to je kvadrat.
PS: A very dramatic transformation has come about. And the question is: What underlies this transformation? It's a profound question, and what's even more amazing is how simple the answer is. The answer lies in motion and that's what I want to show you in the next clip.
PS: Prišlo je do zelo dramatične preobrazbe. Vprašanje pa je: Kaj povzroči tako preobrazbo? Gre za globoko vprašanje, a bolj neverjetno je, kako preprost je odgovor nanj. Odgovor se skriva v gibanju, kar vam bom pokazal v naslednjem prizoru.
Doctor: What shape do you see here?
Zdravnik: Katero obliko vidite?
Patient: I can't make it out.
Pacient: Ne morem ugotoviti.
Doctor: Now?
Zdravnik: Kaj pa zdaj?
Patient: Triangle.
Pacient: Trikotnik.
Doctor: How many things are these? Now, how many things are these?
Zdravnik: Koliko stvari vidite? Kaj pa zdaj, koliko jih je?
Patient: Two.
Pacient: Dve.
Doctor: What are these things?
Zdravnik: Kateri sta ti dve stvari?
Patient: A square and a circle.
Pacient: Kvadrat in krog.
PS: And we see this pattern over and over again. The one thing the visual system needs in order to begin parsing the world is dynamic information. So the inference we are deriving from this, and several such experiments, is that dynamic information processing, or motion processing, serves as the bedrock for building the rest of the complexity of visual processing; it leads to visual integration and eventually to recognition.
PS: Ta vzorec se ponavlja znova in znova. Edino, kar sistem vidnega zaznavanja potrebuje, da razčleni in definira svet, je podatek o gibanju. Iz tega in nekaj drugih poskusov smo sklepali, da je obdelava podatkov o dinamiki ali gibanju temelj celotne preostale zapletene vizualne obdelave; vodi do vizualnega združevanja in posledično prepoznavanja.
This simple idea has far reaching implications. And let me just quickly mention two, one, drawing from the domain of engineering, and one from the clinic. So, from the perspective of engineering, we can ask: Goven that we know that motion is so important for the human visual system, can we use this as a recipe for constructing machine-based vision systems that can learn on their own, that don't need to be programmed by a human programmer? And that's what we're trying to do.
Ta preprosta ideja pa ima široke možnosti uporabe. Naj na hitro omenim le dve, prva je inženirske, druga pa klinične narave. Z inženirskega stališča se lahko vprašamo: Če vemo, da je gibanje tako pomembno za človeški vidni sistem, ali lahko to znanje uporabimo za konstrukcijo mehanskih vizualnih sistemov, ki se lahko učijo sami in brez človeškega programiranja? To tudi poskušamo narediti.
I'm at MIT, at MIT you need to apply whatever basic knowledge you gain. So we are creating Dylan, which is a computational system with an ambitious goal of taking in visual inputs of the same kind that a human child would receive, and autonomously discovering: What are the objects in this visual input? So, don't worry about the internals of Dylan. Here, I'm just going to talk about how we test Dylan. The way we test Dylan is by giving it inputs, as I said, of the same kind that a baby, or a child in Project Prakash would get. But for a long time we couldn't quite figure out: Wow can we get these kinds of video inputs? So, I thought, could we have Darius serve as our babycam carrier, and that way get the inputs that we feed into Dylan? So that's what we did. (Laughter) I had to have long conversations with my wife. (Laughter) In fact, Pam, if you're watching this, please forgive me.
Na Tehnološkem inštitutu v Massachusettsu, kjer delam, uporabimo vsa osnovna znanja, ki jih imamo. Tako smo ustvarili Dylan, računalniški sistem z visoko zastavljenim ciljem prepoznavati vizualne podatke, enake, kot bi jih dobil otrok, in iz njih samostojno razbrati, katere predmete predstavljajo ti vizualni podatki. Tu se ne bomo spuščali v podrobnosti programa, povedal bom le, kako smo ga testirali. To smo storili tako, da smo mu, kot rečeno, posredovali enake vrste podatkov, kot jih dobi otrok v Projektu Prakash. A dolgo časa nismo uspeli dognati: Kako bi pridobili take video podatke? Pomislil sem, da bi nam lahko pomagal Darius in nosil kamero, da bi tako dobili podatke za sistem Dylan. To smo tudi naredili. (Smeh) Dolgo časa sem moral prepričevati ženo. (Smeh) Pam, če to gledaš, mi, prosim, oprosti.
So, we modified the optics of the camera in order to mimic the baby's visual acuity. As some of you might know, babyies are born pretty much legally blind. Their acuity -- our acuity is 20/20; babies' acuity is like 20/800, so they are looking at the world in a very, very blurry fashion. Here's what a baby-cam video looks like.
Optične nastavitve kamere smo spremenili, da je imitirala ostrino dojenčkovega vida. Kot verjetno nekateri veste, se dojenčki rodijo skoraj popolnoma slepi. Ostrina našega vida je 20/20, ostrina dojenčkovega vida pa okrog 20/800, zato vidijo svet zelo zelo megleno. Približno tako vidi dojenček.
(Laughter) (Applause)
(Smeh) (Aplavz)
Thankfully, there isn't any audio to go with this. What's amazing is that working with such highly degraded input, the baby, very quickly, is able to discover meaning in such input. But then two or three days afterward, babies begin to pay attention to their mother's or their father's face. How does that happen? We want Dylan to be able to do that, and using this mantra of motion, Dylan actually can do that. So, given that kind of video input, with just about six or seven minutes worth of video, Dylan can begin to extract patterns that include faces. So, it's an important demonstration of the power of motion.
Na srečo je ta posnetek brez zvoka. Pri tem je izjemno, da pri še tako okrnjenih vizualnih podatkih dojenček lahko zelo hitro odkrije pomen takega prizora. Po dveh ali treh dnevih dojenčki postanejo pozorni na materin ali očetov obraz. Kako se to zgodi? To želimo prikazati z Dylanom, ki lahko z mantro gibanja to dejansko izvede. Pri takih vizualnih podatkih, posnetku, dolgem le šest ali sedem minut, lahko Dylan začne izločati vzorce, ki vključujejo obraze. To je torej pomemben prikaz moči gibanja.
The clinical implication, it comes from the domain of autism. Visual integration has been associated with autism by several researchers. When we saw that, we asked: Could the impairment in visual integration be the manifestation of something underneath, of dynamic information processing deficiencies in autism? Because, if that hypothesis were to be true, it would have massive repercussions in our understanding of what's causing the many different aspects of the autism phenotype.
Cilj klinične implikacije odkritja pa je avtizem. Vizualno povezovanje je avtizmu pripisalo precej raziskovalcev. Ko smo to videli, smo se vprašali, ali bi lahko bilo okrnjeno vizualno povezovanje pravzaprav posledica nečesa globljega, oslabljene obdelave podatkov dinamike pri avtizmu. Če bi namreč to hipotezo potrdili, bi to imelo izjemne posledice v našem razumevanju razlogov in dejavnikov za različne vidike lastnosti in značilnosti avtistov.
What you're going to see are video clips of two children -- one neurotypical, one with autism, playing Pong. So, while the child is playing Pong, we are tracking where they're looking. In red are the eye movement traces. This is the neurotypical child, and what you see is that the child is able to make cues of the dynamic information to predict where the ball is going to go. Even before the ball gets to a place, the child is already looking there. Contrast this with a child with autism playing the same game. Instead of anticipating, the child always follows where the ball has been. The efficiency of the use of dynamic information seems to be significantly compromised in autism. So we are pursuing this line of work and hopefully we'll have more results to report soon.
Videli boste posnetke dveh otrok, nevrotipičnega in avtističnega, pri igranju igre Pong. Med igranjem sledimo njunemu pogledu. Sledi gibanja oči so rdeče barve. To je posnetek nevrotipičnega otroka in vidite, da lahko iz podatkov o dinamiki dobi namig in iztočnico in tako predvidi, kam se bo odbila žogica. Še preden se ta odbije, otrok že gleda tja. Primerjajte to z avtističnim otrokom pri igranju iste igre. Namesto pričakovanja otrok vedno sledi točki, kjer je žogica bila. Učinkovitost uporabe podatkov o dinamiki je, kot kaže, pri avtistih občutno okrnjena. Z delom nadaljujemo v upanju novih rezultatov, o katerih bomo kmalu poročali.
Looking ahead, if you think of this disk as representing all of the children we've treated so far, this is the magnitude of the problem. The red dots are the children we have not treated. So, there are many, many more children who need to be treated, and in order to expand the scope of the project, we are planning on launching The Prakash Center for Children, which will have a dedicated pediatric hospital, a school for the children we are treating and also a cutting-edge research facility. The Prakash Center will integrate health care, education and research in a way that truly creates the whole to be greater than the sum of the parts.
Če gledamo naprej, zamislite si, da ta krog predstavlja vse otroke, ki smo jih doslej zdravili. To pa je razsežnost problematike. Rdeče pike so otroci, ki jih nismo zdravili. Obstaja torej še nepopisno več otrok, potrebnih zdravljenja, in z željo širiti domet projekta, načrtujemo odprtje Otroškega centra Prakash s posebno pediatrično kliniko, šolo za otroke, ki jih zdravimo, in visokotehnološko raziskovalno ustanovo. Center Prakash bo združeval zdravniško oskrbo, izobraževanje in raziskovanje, ki bodo skupaj sestavljali celoto, večjo, kot bi bila vsota vseh delov.
So, to summarize: Prakash, in its five years of existence, it's had an impact in multiple areas, ranging from basic neuroscience plasticity and learning in the brain, to clinically relevant hypotheses like in autism, the development of autonomous machine vision systems, education of the undergraduate and graduate students, and most importantly in the alleviation of childhood blindness. And for my students and I, it's been just a phenomenal experience because we have gotten to do interesting research, while at the same time helping the many children that we have worked with.
Naj povzamem: Prakash je v petih letih delovanja vplival na mnogo področij, od osnovne nevroznanosti, plastičnosti in učenja možganov, do klinično pomembnih hipotez, kot pri avtizmu, razvoja samostojnih mehanskih sistemov vizualnega prepoznavanja, izobraževanja dodiplomskih in podiplomskih študentov, in najpomembneje, zdravljenja slepote otrok. Zame in za moje študente je bila to izredna izkušnja, saj smo izvedli zanimivo raziskovanje, poleg tega pa pomagali množici otrok, s katerimi smo delali.
Thank you very much.
Najlepša hvala.
(Applause)
(Aplavz)