The kind of neuroscience that I do and my colleagues do is almost like the weatherman. We are always chasing storms. We want to see and measure storms -- brainstorms, that is. And we all talk about brainstorms in our daily lives, but we rarely see or listen to one. So I always like to start these talks by actually introducing you to one of them.
Vrsta neuroznanosti koju moji kolege i ja proučavamo je gotovo poput meteorologije. Uvijek „hvatamo“ oluje. Želimo vidjeti i izmjeriti oluje –oluje ideja. Svi pričamo o olujama ideja u dnevnim životima Ali rijetko ih vidimo ili čujemo. Zato volim započeti ovakve razgovore predstavljajući vam jedan od njih.
Actually, the first time we recorded more than one neuron -- a hundred brain cells simultaneously -- we could measure the electrical sparks of a hundred cells in the same animal, this is the first image we got, the first 10 seconds of this recording. So we got a little snippet of a thought, and we could see it in front of us.
Zapravo, prvi put kada smo snimili više od jednog neurona - sto moždanih stanica simultano mogli smo izmjeriti električne iskre stotinu stanica iste životinje, ovo je prva slika koju imamo, prvih 10 sekundi ovog snimka. Uzeli smo mali odsječak misli i mogli ga prikazati ispred nas.
I always tell the students that we could also call neuroscientists some sort of astronomer, because we are dealing with a system that is only comparable in terms of number of cells to the number of galaxies that we have in the universe. And here we are, out of billions of neurons, just recording, 10 years ago, a hundred. We are doing a thousand now. And we hope to understand something fundamental about our human nature. Because, if you don't know yet, everything that we use to define what human nature is comes from these storms, comes from these storms that roll over the hills and valleys of our brains and define our memories, our beliefs, our feelings, our plans for the future. Everything that we ever do, everything that every human has ever done, do or will do, requires the toil of populations of neurons producing these kinds of storms.
Uvijek kažem studentima da bi neuroznanstvenike također mogli zvati vrstom astronoma budući da imamo posla sa susutavom koji je, sa svojim brojem stanica, usporediv samo s brojem galaksija koje postoje u svemiru. I evo nas ovdje, od milijardu neurona, snimajući prije 10 godina svega stotinu. snimamo tisuću danas. I nadamo se otkriti nešto osnovno o našoj ljudskoj prirodi. Zato što, ako već ne znate, sve što koristimo kako bi definirali ljudsku prirodu dolazi iz ovih oluja, dolazi iz ovih impulsa koje prolaze brežuljcima i dolinama našega mozga te definiraju naša sjećanja, naša vjerovanja, naše osjećaje, naše planove za budućnost. Sve što smo ikada uradili, sve što je ijedan čovjek ikada uradio, radi, ili će uraditi Zahtijeva rad populacije neurona što proizvode ove vrste oluja.
And the sound of a brainstorm, if you've never heard one, is somewhat like this. You can put it louder if you can. My son calls this "making popcorn while listening to a badly-tuned A.M. station." This is a brain. This is what happens when you route these electrical storms to a loudspeaker and you listen to a hundred brain cells firing, your brain will sound like this -- my brain, any brain. And what we want to do as neuroscientists in this time is to actually listen to these symphonies, these brain symphonies, and try to extract from them the messages they carry.
Zvuk oluje ideja, ako ga niste nikada čuli, Je otprilike ovakav. Možete poglasniti ako želite. Moj sin to zove „pravljenje kokica tijekom slušanja loše podešene radijske stanice.“ Ovo je mozak. Ovo se događa kada spojite ove električne oluje na zvučnik i slušate sto moždanih stanica kako okidaju, vaš mozak će zvučati ovako – moj mozak, bilo čiji mozak. i što mi neuroznanstvenici želimo učiniti je zapravo slušati ove simfonije, ove moždane simfonije, te pokušati izvuči iz njih poruku koju nose.
In particular, about 12 years ago we created a preparation that we named brain-machine interfaces. And you have a scheme here that describes how it works. The idea is, let's have some sensors that listen to these storms, this electrical firing, and see if you can, in the same time that it takes for this storm to leave the brain and reach the legs or the arms of an animal -- about half a second -- let's see if we can read these signals, extract the motor messages that are embedded in it, translate it into digital commands and send it to an artificial device that will reproduce the voluntary motor wheel of that brain in real time. And see if we can measure how well we can translate that message when we compare to the way the body does that.
Primjerice, prije 12 godina napravili smo pripravak koji smo nazvali sučelje mozak-računalo. Ovdje imate shemu koja opisuje kako radi. Ideja je postaviti neke senzore koji slušaju ove oluje, ovo električno okidanje, i vidjeti ako možemo, u istom vremenu koje je potrebno da ove oluje napuste mozak i dođu do nogu ili ruku životinje – otprilike pola sekunde - vidjeti možemo li očitati ove signale, izvući motoričke poruke koje su sadržane u njima, prevesti ih u digitalne zapovijedi i poslati ih u umjetni uređaj koji će reproducirati voljni motorički kotač mozga u realnom vremenu da vidimo možemo li izmjeriti koliko dobro bismo preveli tu poruku kada usporedimo sa načinom na koji to tijelo radi.
And if we can actually provide feedback, sensory signals that go back from this robotic, mechanical, computational actuator that is now under the control of the brain, back to the brain, how the brain deals with that, of receiving messages from an artificial piece of machinery.
I ako zaista možemo pružiti povratnu informaciju, osjetni signali koji odlaze iz ovog robotskog, mehaničkog, računskog uređaja koji je sada pod kontrolom mozga, nazad u mozak, kako se mozak nosi s time, primajući poruke od strane umjetnog uređaja.
And that's exactly what we did 10 years ago. We started with a superstar monkey called Aurora that became one of the superstars of this field. And Aurora liked to play video games. As you can see here, she likes to use a joystick, like any one of us, any of our kids, to play this game. And as a good primate, she even tries to cheat before she gets the right answer. So even before a target appears that she's supposed to cross with the cursor that she's controlling with this joystick, Aurora is trying to find the target, no matter where it is. And if she's doing that, because every time she crosses that target with the little cursor, she gets a drop of Brazilian orange juice. And I can tell you, any monkey will do anything for you if you get a little drop of Brazilian orange juice. Actually any primate will do that. Think about that.
Upravo smo to učinili prije 10 godina. Započeli smo sa majmunom zvanim Aurora, koji je uskoro postao jedna od superzvijezda na ovom polju. I Aurora je voljela igrati videoigrice. Kao što možete vidjete, voli koristiti joystick, kao bilo tko od nas, kao i naša djeca, kako bi igrala ovu igru. Kao dobar primat, ona čak pokušava varati prije nego dobije pravi odgovor. Čak i prije nego se pojavi meta koju treba prekrižiti s kursorom koji kontrolira putem joysticka, Aurora pokušava pronaći metu, bez obzira gdje se nalazi. I ako to radi, zato što svaki put kada pogodi metu s tim malim kursorom, dobije kap brazilskog soka od naranče. A mogu vam reći, bilo koji majmun će učiniti sve za vas ako imate malo brazilskog soka od naranče. Zapravo, bilo koji primat bi to učinio. Razmislite o tome.
Well, while Aurora was playing this game, as you saw, and doing a thousand trials a day and getting 97 percent correct and 350 milliliters of orange juice, we are recording the brainstorms that are produced in her head and sending them to a robotic arm that was learning to reproduce the movements that Aurora was making. Because the idea was to actually turn on this brain-machine interface and have Aurora play the game just by thinking, without interference of her body. Her brainstorms would control an arm that would move the cursor and cross the target. And to our shock, that's exactly what Aurora did. She played the game without moving her body.
Dok je Aurora igrala ovu igru, kao što ste vidjeli, i radila tisuću testova dnevno i dobivala 97% točno i 350 mililitara soka od naranče, mi smo snimali oluje ideja koje su proizvedeni u njenoj glavi i slali ih u robotsku ruku koja je učila reproducirati pokrete koje je Aurora pravila. zato što je ideja zapravo bila pokrenuti ovo sučelje mozak-računalo i učiniti da Aurora igra igricu samo mislima, bez korištenja njenog tijela. Njene oluje idejai bi kontrolirale ruku koja bi micala kursor i prekrižila metu. Šokirali smo se, to je upravo ono što je Aurora učinila. Igrala je igricu bez korištenja svoga tijela.
So every trajectory that you see of the cursor now, this is the exact first moment she got that. That's the exact first moment a brain intention was liberated from the physical domains of a body of a primate and could act outside, in that outside world, just by controlling an artificial device. And Aurora kept playing the game, kept finding the little target and getting the orange juice that she wanted to get, that she craved for.
Pa svaka putanja kursora koju sada vidite, ovo je točan prvi trenutak kada je uspjela. Ovo je prvi trenutak kada je namjera mozga oslobođena fizičke domene tijela primata i mogla djelovati vani, u vanjskom svijetu jednostavno kontrolirajući umjetni uređaj. i Aurora je nastavila igrati igricu, pronalazeći malenu metu i dobivala sok od naranče koji je željela, za kojim je čeznula.
Well, she did that because she, at that time, had acquired a new arm. The robotic arm that you see moving here 30 days later, after the first video that I showed to you, is under the control of Aurora's brain and is moving the cursor to get to the target. And Aurora now knows that she can play the game with this robotic arm, but she has not lost the ability to use her biological arms to do what she pleases. She can scratch her back, she can scratch one of us, she can play another game. By all purposes and means, Aurora's brain has incorporated that artificial device as an extension of her body. The model of the self that Aurora had in her mind has been expanded to get one more arm.
Doduše, radila je sve to zato što je, tada, dobila novu ruku. Robotska ruka koju vidite kako se pokreće ovdje 30 dana nakon, nakon prvog videa koji sam vam pokazao, je pod kontrolom Aurorina mozga i pomiče kursor do mete. I Aurora sada zna da može igrati igricu s ovom robotskom rukom, Ali nije izgubila sposobnost da koristi svoje biološke ruke da radi što poželi. Može se počešati po leđima, može počešati nekoga od nas, može igrati drugu igricu. Na svaki mogući način, Aurorin mozak je prihvatio taj umjetni uređaj kao produžetak svog tijela. Model sebe koji je Aurora imala na svom umu je bio proširen kako bi dobio još jednu ruku.
Well, we did that 10 years ago. Just fast forward 10 years. Just last year we realized that you don't even need to have a robotic device. You can just build a computational body, an avatar, a monkey avatar. And you can actually use it for our monkeys to either interact with them, or you can train them to assume in a virtual world the first-person perspective of that avatar and use her brain activity to control the movements of the avatar's arms or legs.
Dakle, učinili smo to prije 10 godina. Premotajte 10 godina unaprijed. Tek prošle godine shvatili smo da čak ne trebate ni imati robotski uređaj. Možete samo napraviti računsko tijelo, avatar, avatar majmuna. I možete ga koristiti za naše majmune da vrše interakciju s njima, Ili ih možete naučiti da u virtualnom svijetu zauzmu perspektivu u prvom licu tog avatara i koriste njenu moždanu aktivnost da bi kontrolirali pokrete ruku i nogu avatara.
And what we did basically was to train the animals to learn how to control these avatars and explore objects that appear in the virtual world. And these objects are visually identical, but when the avatar crosses the surface of these objects, they send an electrical message that is proportional to the microtactile texture of the object that goes back directly to the monkey's brain, informing the brain what it is the avatar is touching. And in just four weeks, the brain learns to process this new sensation and acquires a new sensory pathway -- like a new sense. And you truly liberate the brain now because you are allowing the brain to send motor commands to move this avatar. And the feedback that comes from the avatar is being processed directly by the brain without the interference of the skin.
Mi smo zapravo istrenirali ove životinje da nauče kako kontrolirati ove avatare i otkriju objekte koji se nalazae u virtualnom svijetu. A ovi objekti su vizualno identični, ali kada avatar prelazi preko površina ovih objekata oni šalje električnu poruku koja je proporcionalnaj teksturi objekta koja odlazi nazad direktno u majmunov mozak informirajući mozak što avatar dodiruje. I u samo četiri tjedna, mozak nauči kako obraditi ovaj novi osjećaj i dobiva novi senzorički put – kao novi osjećaj. Sada zaista oslobađate mozak zato što dopuštate mozgu da šalje motoričke zapovijedi da bi pokrenuo avatar. A povratnu vezu koja dolazi iz avatara mozak direktno obrađuje bez uplitanja kože.
So what you see here is this is the design of the task. You're going to see an animal basically touching these three targets. And he has to select one because only one carries the reward, the orange juice that they want to get. And he has to select it by touch using a virtual arm, an arm that doesn't exist. And that's exactly what they do.
Dakle, ono što vidite ovdje je dizajn ovog zadatka. Vidjet ćete životinju koja u osnovi dodiruje ove tri mete. I ona mora odabrati jedan jer samo jedan donosi nagradu, sok od naranče koji žele dobiti, i mora ga odabrati dodirom koristeći virtualnu ruku, ruku koja ne postoji. I to je upravo ono što oni učine.
This is a complete liberation of the brain from the physical constraints of the body and the motor in a perceptual task. The animal is controlling the avatar to touch the targets. And he's sensing the texture by receiving an electrical message directly in the brain. And the brain is deciding what is the texture associated with the reward. The legends that you see in the movie don't appear for the monkey. And by the way, they don't read English anyway, so they are here just for you to know that the correct target is shifting position. And yet, they can find them by tactile discrimination, and they can press it and select it.
Ovo je potpuno oslobođenje mozga od fizičkih ograničenja tijela i motorike u perceptivnom zadatku. Životinja kontrolira avatar kako bi dodirnula mete. I osjeća teksturu primajući električni podražaj direktno u mozak. I mozak odlučuje je li tekstura povezana s nagradom. Legende koje vidite na snimci se ne prikazuju majmunu. I, usput, svakako ne razumiju Engleski, ovdje su samo za vas kako bi znali da točan odgovor mijenja mjesta. Ipak, mogu ih pronaći putem dodirne diskriminacije, i mogu ga pritisnuti i odabrati ga.
So when we look at the brains of these animals, on the top panel you see the alignment of 125 cells showing what happens with the brain activity, the electrical storms, of this sample of neurons in the brain when the animal is using a joystick. And that's a picture that every neurophysiologist knows. The basic alignment shows that these cells are coding for all possible directions. The bottom picture is what happens when the body stops moving and the animal starts controlling either a robotic device or a computational avatar. As fast as we can reset our computers, the brain activity shifts to start representing this new tool, as if this too was a part of that primate's body. The brain is assimilating that too, as fast as we can measure.
I kada pogledamo mozgove ovih životinja, na gornjoj ploči vidite poravnanje 125 stanica, pokazujući što se događa sa moždanom aktivnošću, električnim olujom ovog uzorka neurona u mozgu kada životinja koristi joystick. I ovo je slika koju svaki neurofiziolog zna. Osnovno poravnanje pokazuje da ove su ove stanice kodirane za sve moguće smjerove. Donja slika pokazuje što se dogodi kada se tijelo prestane kretati a životinja počne kontrolirati robotsku napravu ili kompjuterski avatar. Brzo koliko možemo resetirati naša računala moždana aktivnost se prebacuje kako bi počela reprezentirati ovo novo oruđe, kao da je i ono dio tijela tog primata. Mozak se također prilagođava, brzo koliko možemo izmjeriti.
So that suggests to us that our sense of self does not end at the last layer of the epithelium of our bodies, but it ends at the last layer of electrons of the tools that we're commanding with our brains. Our violins, our cars, our bicycles, our soccer balls, our clothing -- they all become assimilated by this voracious, amazing, dynamic system called the brain.
To nam govori da naš osjećaj svijesti ne završava u zadnjem sloju epitela naših tijela, nego na zadnjem sloju elektrona oruđa kojim zapovijedamo našim mozgom. Naše violine, naši auti, naši bicikli, naše nogometne lopte, naša odjeća - svi se prilagođavaju prožrdljivim, čudesnim, dinamičkim sustavom nazvanim mozak.
How far can we take it? Well, in an experiment that we ran a few years ago, we took this to the limit. We had an animal running on a treadmill at Duke University on the East Coast of the United States, producing the brainstorms necessary to move. And we had a robotic device, a humanoid robot, in Kyoto, Japan at ATR Laboratories that was dreaming its entire life to be controlled by a brain, a human brain, or a primate brain.
Koliko daleko možemo ići? U eksperimentu koji smo napravili prije par godina, doveli smo ga do limita. Postavili smo životinju da trči na pokretnoj traci na sveučilištu Duke na istočnoj obali SAD-a, stvarajući oluje ideja potrebne za pokret. I postavili smo robtosku napravu, humanoidnog robota U Kyotu, u Japanu u ATR laboratorijima koji je cijeli život sanjao kako će ga mozak kontrolirati, ljudski mozak, ili mozak primata.
What happens here is that the brain activity that generated the movements in the monkey was transmitted to Japan and made this robot walk while footage of this walking was sent back to Duke, so that the monkey could see the legs of this robot walking in front of her. So she could be rewarded, not by what her body was doing but for every correct step of the robot on the other side of the planet controlled by her brain activity.
Dogodilo se da je moždana aktivnost koja je izazvala pokrete u majmunu, bila odaslana u Japan i pokrenula ovog robota dok je snimka ovog kretanja bila poslana nazad na Duke, majmun mogao vidjeti noge ovog robota kako šeće ispred nje. Bila je nagrađena, ne zbog onog što je njego tijelo radilo, već za svaki ispravni korak robota na drugoj strani planete kontroliran njenom moždanom aktivnošću.
Funny thing, that round trip around the globe took 20 milliseconds less than it takes for that brainstorm to leave its head, the head of the monkey, and reach its own muscle. The monkey was moving a robot that was six times bigger, across the planet. This is one of the experiments in which that robot was able to walk autonomously. This is CB1 fulfilling its dream in Japan under the control of the brain activity of a primate.
Smiješna stvar, taj put oko svijeta je trajao 20 milisekundi manje nego što je potrebno moždanom impulsu da izađe iz svoje glave, glave majmuna i dođe do svog mišića. Majmun je pokretao robota koji je bio šest puta veći, preko planeta. Ovo je jedan od eksperimenata u kojem je robot mogao hodati autonomno. Ovo je CB1 ispunjavajući svoj san u Japanu pod kontrolom moždane aktivnosti primata.
So where are we taking all this? What are we going to do with all this research, besides studying the properties of this dynamic universe that we have between our ears? Well the idea is to take all this knowledge and technology and try to restore one of the most severe neurological problems that we have in the world. Millions of people have lost the ability to translate these brainstorms into action, into movement. Although their brains continue to produce those storms and code for movements, they cannot cross a barrier that was created by a lesion on the spinal cord.
Dokle nas ovo vodi? Što ćemo učiniti sa svim ovim istraživanjima, osim proučavanja svojstava dinamičkog svemira kojeg imamo između ušiju? Pa, ideja je uzeti svo znanje i tehnologiju i pokušati obnoviti jedan od najtežih problema koje imamo u svijetu. Milijuni ljudi su izgubili sposobnost prevođenja ovih oluja informacija u akciju, u pokret. Iako njihovi mozgovi nastavljaju sa stvaranjem ovih impulsa i kodova za pokrete oni ne mogu proći barijeru koja je stvorena lezijom na kralježničnoj moždini.
So our idea is to create a bypass, is to use these brain-machine interfaces to read these signals, larger-scale brainstorms that contain the desire to move again, bypass the lesion using computational microengineering and send it to a new body, a whole body called an exoskeleton, a whole robotic suit that will become the new body of these patients.
Dakle, naša ideja je stvoriti zaobilaznicu, Iskoristiti ovo sučelje mozak-stroj kako bi pročitali ove signale, oluje ideja većeg razmjera s namjerom ponovnog kretanja, zaobišli leziju koristeći kompjuterski mikroinžinjering i poslali ih u novo tijelo, potpuno novo tijelo zvano egzoskelet, robotsko odijelo koje bi postalo novo tijelo ovih pacijenata.
And you can see an image produced by this consortium. This is a nonprofit consortium called the Walk Again Project that is putting together scientists from Europe, from here in the United States, and in Brazil together to work to actually get this new body built -- a body that we believe, through the same plastic mechanisms that allow Aurora and other monkeys to use these tools through a brain-machine interface and that allows us to incorporate the tools that we produce and use in our daily life. This same mechanism, we hope, will allow these patients, not only to imagine again the movements that they want to make and translate them into movements of this new body, but for this body to be assimilated as the new body that the brain controls.
Možete vidjeti sliku stvorenu ovim projektom. Ovo je neprofitni projekt zvan Hodaj Ponovo Projekt Koji povezuje znanstvenike iz Europe SAD-a i Brazila kako bi zajedno radili i zapravo napravili ovo novo tijelo - tijelo za koje smatramo da bi, kroz iste plastične mehanizme koji su omogućili Aurori i drugim majmunima da koriste oruđa kroz sučelje mozak-računalo i koje je omogućilo nama da se sjedinimo s oruđima koja koristimo u dnevnom životu ovaj isti mehanizam će, nadamo se, omogućiti ovim pacijentima ne samo da zamisle ponovo pokrete koje žele učiniti i prevedu ih u pokrete ovog novog tijela, nego da se ovo tijelo prilagodi kao novo tijelo koje mozak kontrolira.
So I was told about 10 years ago that this would never happen, that this was close to impossible. And I can only tell you that as a scientist, I grew up in southern Brazil in the mid-'60s watching a few crazy guys telling [us] that they would go to the Moon. And I was five years old, and I never understood why NASA didn't hire Captain Kirk and Spock to do the job; after all, they were very proficient -- but just seeing that as a kid made me believe, as my grandmother used to tell me, that "impossible is just the possible that someone has not put in enough effort to make it come true."
Rečeno mi je prije 10 godina da se ovo nikad neće dogoditi, da je ovo skoro pa nemoguće. I mogu vam jedino reći kao znanstvenik, Odrastao sam u južnom Brazilu u srednjim 60-ima slušajući par šašavih ljudi kako nam govore da će nas odvesti na Mjesec. Imao sam pet godina, i nikako nisam razumio zašto NASA nije unajmila Kirka i Spocka da obave posao; na kraju krajeva, bili su vrlo sposobni -- ali jednostavno gledajući to kao dijete Povjerovao sam, kao što mi je baka često govorila, Da je „nemoguće samo moguće u koje netko nije uložio dovoljno truda da to ostvari.“
So they told me that it's impossible to make someone walk. I think I'm going to follow my grandmother's advice.
Znači, rekli su mi da je nemoguće učiniti da netko ponovo hoda. Mislim da ću slijediti bakin savjet.
Thank you.
Hvala vam.
(Applause)
(Pljesak)