I'd like you to come back with me for a moment to the 19th century, specifically to June 24, 1833. The British Association for the Advancement of Science is holding its third meeting at the University of Cambridge. It's the first night of the meeting, and a confrontation is about to take place that will change science forever.
Želela bih da se na trenutak vratite sa mnom u 19. vek, i to u 24. jun 1833. Britansko udruženje za unapređenje nauke, održava svoj treći sastanak na Kembridž univerzitetu. Prvo je veče sastanka, i uskoro će započeti rasprava koja će zauvek promeniti svet nauke. Stariji, sedi čovek ustaje.
An elderly, white-haired man stands up. The members of the Association are shocked to realize that it's the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who hadn't even left his house in years until that day. They're even more shocked by what he says.
Članovi Udruženja su u šoku, jer su prepoznali pesnika Samjuela Tejlora Kolridža, koji godinama nije napuštao svoju kuću. Još više ih šokiraju njegove reči: "Morate prestati da se nazivate prirodnim filozofima."
"You must stop calling yourselves natural philosophers."
Kolridž je smatrao da pravi filozofi, kao on,
Coleridge felt that true philosophers like himself pondered the cosmos from their armchairs. They were not mucking around in the fossil pits or conducting messy experiments with electrical piles like the members of the British Association.
proučavaju svemir iz svojih fotelja. Oni ne gube vreme u fosilnim jamama i ne izvode umazane eksperimente s elektrohemijskim baterijama kao članovi Britanskog udruženja. Publika je počela da se ljuti i da glasno negoduje.
The crowd grew angry and began to complain loudly. A young Cambridge scholar named William Whewell stood up and quieted the audience. He politely agreed that an appropriate name for the members of the association did not exist.
Mladi student Kembridž univerziteta po imenu Vilijam Vivel je ustao i umirio publiku. Učtivo se složio da ne postoji prikladno ime za članove udruženja. "Ako je 'filozof' preširok i preuzvišen termin" -
"If 'philosophers' is taken to be too wide and lofty a term," he said, "then, by analogy with 'artist,' we may form 'scientist.'" This was the first time the word scientist was uttered in public, only 179 years ago.
rekao je - "onda, po analogiji sa 'umetnikom,' možemo skovati reč 'naučnik.'" Bilo je to prvi put da je reč naučnik izgovorena u javnosti, pre samo 179 godina. Prvi put sam otkrila ovu raspravu na postdiplomskim studijama
I first found out about this confrontation when I was in graduate school, and it kind of blew me away. I mean, how could the word scientist not have existed until 1833? What were scientists called before? What had changed to make a new name necessary precisely at that moment? Prior to this meeting, those who studied the natural world were talented amateurs. Think of the country clergyman or squire collecting his beetles or fossils, like Charles Darwin, for example, or, the hired help of a nobleman, like Joseph Priestley, who was the literary companion to the Marquis of Lansdowne when he discovered oxygen. After this, they were scientists, professionals with a particular scientific method, goals, societies and funding.
i oborila me je s nogu. Kako to da reč naučnik nije uopšte postojala do 1833.? Kako su naučnike nazivali pre toga? Šta se to promenilo da je novo ime postalo nužno baš u tom trenutku? Do toga susreta, prirodnjaci su bili talentovani amateri. Pomislite na seoskog sveštenika ili plemića kako skuplja svoje bube ili fosile, kao što je na primer Čarls Darvin, ili na unajmljenog plemića pomoćnika, kao što je Džozef Pristli, koji je bio književni pratilac markizu od Lansdauna kada je otkrio kiseonik. Posle sastanka su postali naučnici, profesionalci s određenom naučnom metodom, ciljevima, društvima i finansiranjem. Veliki deo ove revolucije može se pripisati četvorici muškaraca
Much of this revolution can be traced to four men who met at Cambridge University in 1812: Charles Babbage, John Herschel, Richard Jones and William Whewell. These were brilliant, driven men who accomplished amazing things. Charles Babbage, I think known to most TEDsters, invented the first mechanical calculator and the first prototype of a modern computer. John Herschel mapped the stars of the southern hemisphere, and, in his spare time, co-invented photography. I'm sure we could all be that productive without Facebook or Twitter to take up our time. Richard Jones became an important economist who later influenced Karl Marx. And Whewell not only coined the term scientist, as well as the words anode, cathode and ion, but spearheaded international big science with his global research on the tides. In the Cambridge winter of 1812 and 1813, the four met for what they called philosophical breakfasts. They talked about science and the need for a new scientific revolution. They felt science had stagnated since the days of the scientific revolution that had happened in the 17th century. It was time for a new revolution, which they pledged to bring about, and what's so amazing about these guys is, not only did they have these grandiose undergraduate dreams, but they actually carried them out, even beyond their wildest dreams. And I'm going to tell you today about four major changes to science these men made.
koji su se srelii na Kembridžu 1812.: Čarlsu Babidžu, Džonu Heršelu, Ričardu Džonsu i Vilijamu Vivelu. Bili su to sjajni, pasionirani ljudi koji su ostvarili neverovatne stvari. Čarls Babidž, verovatno poznat većini TED-stera, izumeo je prvi mehanički kalkulator i prvi prototip modernog računara. Džon Heršel je izradio mapu sazvežđa južne hemisfere, a u slobodno vreme je učestvovao u pronalasku fotografije. Sigurna sam da bismo svi mogli biti tako produktivni da nam Fejsbuk ili Tviter ne uzimaju vreme. Ričard Džons je postao ugledan ekonomista koji je kasnije uticao na Karla Marksa. A Vivel ne samo da je skovao reč naučnik, kao i reči anoda, katoda i jon, već je i predvodio veliku međunarodnu nauku svojim globalnim istraživanjem morskih mena. U Kembridžu, zime 1812. i 1813. ova četvorka se sretala na tako prozvanim filozofskim doručcima. Razgovarali su o nauci i o potrebi za novom naučnom revolucijom. Smatrali su da je nauka stagnirala od vremena naučne revolucije iz 17. veka. Bilo je vreme za novu revoluciju za koju su se zakleli da će započeti, a zadivljujuće je da ne samo da su imali ove grandiozne studentske snove, već su ih i ostvarili i to više nego što su mogli i zamisliti. Danas ću vam govoriti o četiri glavne promene u nauci koje su ovi ljudi napravili. Oko 200 godina ranije,
About 200 years before, Francis Bacon and then, later, Isaac Newton, had proposed an inductive scientific method. Now that's a method that starts from observations and experiments and moves to generalizations about nature called natural laws, which are always subject to revision or rejection should new evidence arise. However, in 1809, David Ricardo muddied the waters by arguing that the science of economics should use a different, deductive method. The problem was that an influential group at Oxford began arguing that because it worked so well in economics, this deductive method ought to be applied to the natural sciences too. The members of the philosophical breakfast club disagreed. They wrote books and articles promoting inductive method in all the sciences that were widely read by natural philosophers, university students and members of the public. Reading one of Herschel's books was such a watershed moment for Charles Darwin that he would later say, "Scarcely anything in my life made so deep an impression on me. It made me wish to add my might to the accumulated store of natural knowledge." It also shaped Darwin's scientific method, as well as that used by his peers. [Science for the public good]
Frensis Bekon i kasnije Isak Njutn, predložili su induktivni naučni metod. To je metod koji počinje zapažanjem i eksperimentima, a nastavlja se uopštavanjima o prirodi koja se nazivaju prirodnim zakonima, koji uvek mogu da budu revidirani ili odbačeni ukoliko se za to pojavi nov dokaz. Međutim, 1809., David Rikardo je uneo zabunu argumentujući da bi ekonomska nauka trebalo da koristi drukčiji, deduktivni metod. Problem je bio u tvrdnji uticajne grupe na Oksfordu da zbog dobrog funkcionisanja u ekonomiji, ovaj deduktivni metod treba da bude primenjen i na prirodne nauke. Članovi kluba filozofskog doručka se nisu s tim slagalii. Pisali su knjige i članke promovišući induktivni metod u svim naukama, što su najviše čitali filozofi prirodnjaci, studenti i predstavnici javnosti. Za Čarlsa Darvina je bilo prelomno čitanje jedne od Heršelovih knjiga, pa je kasnije rekao: "Retko da je išta u mom životu ostavilo toliko dubok utisak na mene. Zaželeo sam da dodam svoju snagu nagomilanom prirodnom znanju." To je uobličilo Darvinov naučni metod, kao i metod njegovih kolega. [Nauka za opšte dobro] Pre toga se verovalo da bi naučna saznanja
Previously, it was believed that scientific knowledge ought to be used for the good of the king or queen, or for one's own personal gain. For example, ship captains needed to know information about the tides in order to safely dock at ports. Harbormasters would gather this knowledge and sell it to the ship captains. The philosophical breakfast club changed that, working together. Whewell's worldwide study of the tides resulted in public tide tables and tidal maps that freely provided the harbormasters' knowledge to all ship captains. Herschel helped by making tidal observations off the coast of South Africa, and, as he complained to Whewell, he was knocked off the docks during a violent high tide for his trouble. The four men really helped each other in every way. They also relentlessly lobbied the British government for the money to build Babbage's engines because they believed these engines would have a huge practical impact on society. In the days before pocket calculators, the numbers that most professionals needed -- bankers, insurance agents, ship captains, engineers — were to be found in lookup books like this, filled with tables of figures. These tables were calculated using a fixed procedure over and over by part-time workers known as -- and this is amazing -- computers, but these calculations were really difficult. I mean, this nautical almanac published the lunar differences for every month of the year. Each month required 1,365 calculations, so these tables were filled with mistakes. Babbage's difference engine was the first mechanical calculator devised to accurately compute any of these tables. Two models of his engine were built in the last 20 years by a team from the Science Museum of London using his own plans. This is the one now at the Computer History Museum in California, and it calculates accurately. It actually works. Later, Babbage's analytical engine was the first mechanical computer in the modern sense. It had a separate memory and central processor. It was capable of iteration, conditional branching and parallel processing, and it was programmable using punched cards, an idea Babbage took from Jacquard's loom. Tragically, Babbage's engines never were built in his day because most people thought that non-human computers would have no usefulness for the public. [New scientific institutions]
trebalo koristiti za dobrobit kralja ili kraljice, ili za ličnu korist. Na primer, brodski kapetani su morali da saznaju o stanju morskih mena radi bezbednog pristajanja u lukama. Lučki piloti bi prikupljali ta saznanja i prodavali ih kapetanima. Klub filozofskog doručka je to promenio zajedničkim snagama. Vivelova svetska studija o morskim menama je dovela do javnih tabela i karti morskih mena koje su pružale besplatno znanje lučkih pilota svim pomorskim kapetanima. Heršel je doprineo opažanjem morskih mena s obale Južne Afrike i kako se požalio Vivelu o svojim teškoćama sa doka ga je zbacila silovita plima. Ova četvorka se zaista međusobno pomagala u svakom pogledu. Takođe su neumorno lobirali u britanskoj vladi radi novca kojim bi se izgradile Babidževe mašine verujući da će one imati veliki praktičan uticaj na društvo. U doba pre džepnih kalkulatora, brojevi potrebni većini stručnjaka - bankarima, agentima osiguranja, brodskim kapetanima, inženjerima - mogli su se naći u preglednim knjigama kao što je ova, ispunjenim tabelama sa brojevima. Ove tabele su računali, po utvrđenom postupku svaki put ponovo, honorarni radnici poznati pod zanimljivim imenom - računari, ali ti proračuni su bili zaista teški. Ovaj nautički kalendar je objavljivao lunarne razlike za svaki mesec u godini. Za svaki mesec je trebalo 1365 proračuna, pa su te tabele bile pune grešaka. Babidževa diferencijalna mašina predstavljala je prvi mehanički kalkulator osmišljen za tačno izračunavanje bilo koje od tih tabela. U poslednjih 20 godina dva modela ove mašine napravio je tim iz Muzeja nauke u Londonu koristeći njegove nacrte. Ovaj je danas u Muzeju istorije računara u Kaliforniji, i tačno računa. Stvarno radi. Kasnije je Babidževa analitička mašina postala prvi mehanički računar u modernom smislu. Imao je odvojenu memoriju i centralni procesor. Imao je mogućnost iteracije, uslovnog grananja i istovremene obrade, a mogao se programirati pomoću bušenih kartica, ideje koju je Babidž preuzeo od Žakardovog razboja. Nažalost, Babidževe mašine nisu izgrađene u njegovo vreme jer je većina ljudi mislila da ne-ljudski računari neće biti od koristi za javnost. [Nove naučne institucije] U Bejkonovo vreme osnovano je Kraljevsko društvo Londona
Founded in Bacon's time, the Royal Society of London was the foremost scientific society in England and even in the rest of the world. By the 19th century, it had become a kind of gentleman's club populated mainly by antiquarians, literary men and the nobility. The members of the philosophical breakfast club helped form a number of new scientific societies, including the British Association. These new societies required that members be active researchers publishing their results. They reinstated the tradition of the Q&A after scientific papers were read, which had been discontinued by the Royal Society as being ungentlemanly. And for the first time, they gave women a foot in the door of science. Members were encouraged to bring their wives, daughters and sisters to the meetings of the British Association, and while the women were expected to attend only the public lectures and the social events like this one, they began to infiltrate the scientific sessions as well. The British Association would later be the first of the major national science organizations in the world to admit women as full members. [External funding for science]
koje je bilo najistaknutije naučno društvo u Engleskoj pa čak i u svetu. U 19. veku, preraslo je u svojevrsni džentlmenski klub u kojem su uglavnom boravili antikvari, književnici i plemstvo. Članovi kluba filozofskog doručka doprineli su formiranju brojnih novih naučnih društava, uključujući Britansko udruženje. Ova nova društva su od članova zahtevala da budu aktivni istraživači koji objavljuju svoja dostignuća. Ponovo su uveli tradiciju diskusije posle pročitanih naučnih radova, koja je bila ukinuta od strane Kraljevskog društva kao nedžentlmenska. Po prvi put su otvorili ženama vrata nauke. Članove su podsticali da dovode svoje žene, kćeri i sestre na sastanke Britanskog udruženja i dok se od žena očekivalo da prisustvuju samo javnim predavanjima i društvenim priredbama nalik ovoj, one su postupno počele da se uključuju i u naučne sednice. Britansko udruženje će kasnije biti prvo od svih glavnih nacionalnih naučnih organizacija u svetu, koje će priznati žene kao punopravne članice. [Finansiranje nauke] Do 19. veka,
Up to the 19th century, natural philosophers were expected to pay for their own equipment and supplies. Occasionally, there were prizes, such as that given to John Harrison in the 18th century, for solving the so-called longitude problem, but prizes were only given after the fact, when they were given at all. On the advice of the philosophical breakfast club, the British Association began to use the extra money generated by its meetings to give grants for research in astronomy, the tides, fossil fish, shipbuilding, and many other areas. These grants not only allowed less wealthy men to conduct research, but they also encouraged thinking outside the box, rather than just trying to solve one pre-set question. Eventually, the Royal Society and the scientific societies of other countries followed suit, and this has become -- fortunately it's become -- a major part of the scientific landscape today.
od prirodnih filozofa se očekivalo da sami plaćaju svoju opremu i materijal. Povremeno su se dodeljivale nagrade, kao što je nagrada Džonu Harisonu u 18. veku, za rešavanje takozvanog problema longitude, ali nagrade su dodeljivane samo posle pronalazaka kad su uopšte dodeljivane. Po savetu kluba filozofskog doručka Britansko udruženje je počelo da koristi dodatne prihode, ostvarene svojim sastancima, za stipendiranje istraživanja u astronomiji, morskih mena, ribljih fosila, brodogradnje i u mnogim drugim područjima. Ove donacije ne samo da su dopuštale siromašnijim ljudima da istražuju, već su takođe podsticale razmišljanja izvan ustaljenih okvira, za razliku od rešavanja samo nekog unapred određenog pitanja. I na kraju, Kraljevsko društvo i naučna društva iz drugih zemalja su sledila taj primer, i to je na sreću postalo glavni deo današnje naučne scene.
So the philosophical breakfast club helped invent the modern scientist. That's the heroic part of their story. There's a flip side as well. They did not foresee at least one consequence of their revolution. They would have been deeply dismayed by today's disjunction between science and the rest of culture. It's shocking to realize that only 28 percent of American adults have even a very basic level of science literacy, and this was tested by asking simple questions like, "Did humans and dinosaurs inhabit the Earth at the same time?" and "What proportion of the Earth is covered in water?" Once scientists became members of a professional group, they were slowly walled off from the rest of us. This is the unintended consequence of the revolution that started with our four friends.
Tako je klub filozofskog doručka pomogao u stvaranju modernog naučnika. To je herojski deo njihove priče. Postoji takođe i naličje. Nisu predvideli bar jednu posledicu svoje revolucije. Duboko bi ih zaprepastila današnja razdvojenost nauke i ostatka kulture. Šokantno je saznanje da je samo 28 posto odraslih u Americi na elementarnom nivou naučne pismenosti, što je testirano jednostavnim pitanjima, kao što je: "Da li su ljudi i dinosaurusi istovremeno nastanjivali Zemlju?" i "Koliki je deo Zemlje prekriven vodom?" Jednom kada su naučnici postali članovi profesionalne grupe, polako su se ogradili od nas ostalih. Ovo je nenamerna posledica revolucije koja je započela sa naša četiri prijatelja.
Charles Darwin said, "I sometimes think that general and popular treatises are almost as important for the progress of science as original work." In fact, "Origin of Species" was written for a general and popular audience, and was widely read when it first appeared. Darwin knew what we seem to have forgotten, that science is not only for scientists.
Čarls Darvin je rekao: "Ponekad pomislim da su opšte i javne rasprave skoro jednako važne za unapređenje nauke kao i originalno delo." U stvari knjiga "O poreklu vrsta" je napisana za širok krug ljudi, i bila je najčitanija kad se pojavila. Darvin je znao to što smo mi izgleda zaboravili, da nauka nije samo za naučnike.
Thank you.
Hvala vam.
(Applause)
(Aplauz)