Have you ever experienced a moment in your life that was so painful and confusing, that all you wanted to do was learn as much as you could to make sense of it all? When I was 13, a close family friend who was like an uncle to me passed away from pancreatic cancer. When the disease hit so close to home, I knew I needed to learn more. So I went online to find answers. Using the Internet, I found a variety of statistics on pancreatic cancer, and what I had found shocked me. Over 85 percent of all pancreatic cancers are diagnosed late, when someone has less than a two percent chance of survival. Why are we so bad at detecting pancreatic cancer? The reason? Today's current "modern" medicine is a 60-year-old technique. That's older than my dad. (Laughter) But also, it's extremely expensive, costing 800 dollars per test, and it's grossly inaccurate, missing 30 percent of all pancreatic cancers. Your doctor would have to be ridiculously suspicious that you have the cancer in order to give you this test. Learning this, I knew there had to be a better way. So, I set up scientific criteria as to what a sensor would have to look like in order to effectively diagnose pancreatic cancer. The sensor would have to be: inexpensive, rapid, simple, sensitive, selective, and minimally invasive. Now, there's a reason why this test hasn't been updated in over six decades. And that's because when we're looking for pancreatic cancer, we're looking at your bloodstream, which is already abundant in all these tons and tons of protein, and you're looking for this miniscule difference in this tiny amount of protein. Just this one protein. That's next to impossible. However, undeterred due to my teenage optimism -- (Laughter) (Applause) I went online to a teenager's two best friends, Google and Wikipedia. I got everything for my homework from those two sources. (Laughter) And what I had found was an article that listed a database of over 8,000 different proteins that are found when you have pancreatic cancer. So, I decided to go and make it my new mission to go through all these proteins, and see which ones could serve as a bio-marker for pancreatic cancer. And to make it a bit simpler for myself, I decided to map out scientific criteria, and here it is. Essentially, first, the protein would have to be found in all pancreatic cancers, at high levels in the bloodstream, in the earliest stages, but also only in cancer. And so I'm just plugging and chugging through this gargantuan task, and finally, on the 4,000th try, when I'm close to losing my sanity, I find the protein. And the name of the protein I'd located was called mesothelin, and it's just your ordinary, run-of-the-mill type protein, unless, of course, you have pancreatic, ovarian or lung cancer, in which case it's found at these very high levels in your bloodstream. But also, the key is that it's found in the earliest stages of the disease, when someone has close to 100 percent chance of survival. So now that I'd found a reliable protein I could detect, I then shifted my focus to actually detecting that protein, and thus, pancreatic cancer. Now, my breakthrough came in a very unlikely place, possibly the most unlikely place for innovation -- my high school biology class, the absolute stifler of innovation. (Laughter) (Applause) And I had snuck in this article on these things called carbon nanotubes, and that's just a long, thin pipe of carbon that's an atom thick, and one 50,000th the diameter of your hair. And despite their extremely small sizes, they have these incredible properties. They're kind of like the superheroes of material science. And while I was sneakily reading this article under my desk in my biology class, we were supposed to be paying attention to these other kind of cool molecules, called antibodies. And these are pretty cool because they only react with one specific protein, but they're not nearly as interesting as carbon nanotubes. And so then, I was sitting in class, and suddenly it hit me: I could combine what I was reading about, carbon nanotubes, with what I was supposed to be thinking about, antibodies. Essentially, I could weave a bunch of these antibodies into a network of carbon nanotubes, such that you have a network that only reacts with one protein, but also, due to the properties of these nanotubes, it will change its electrical properties, based on the amount of protein present. However, there's a catch. These networks of carbon nanotubes are extremely flimsy. And since they're so delicate, they need to be supported. So that's why I chose to use paper. Making a cancer sensor out of paper is about as simple as making chocolate chip cookies, which I love. (Laughs) You start with some water, pour in some nanotubes, add antibodies, mix it up, take some paper, dip it, dry it, and you can detect cancer. (Applause) Then, suddenly, a thought occurred that kind of put a blemish on my amazing plan here. I can't really do cancer research on my kitchen countertop. My mom wouldn't really like that. So instead, I decided to go for a lab. So I typed up a budget, a materials list, a timeline, and a procedure, and I emailed it to 200 different professors at Johns Hopkins University and the National Institutes of Health -- essentially, anyone that had anything to do with pancreatic cancer. I sat back waiting for these positive emails to be pouring in, saying, "You're a genius! You're going to save us all!" And -- (Laughter) Then reality took hold, and over the course of a month, I got 199 rejections out of those 200 emails. One professor even went through my entire procedure, painstakingly -- I'm not really sure where he got all this time -- and he went through and said why each and every step was like the worst mistake I could ever make. Clearly, the professors did not have as high of an opinion of my work as I did. However, there is a silver lining. One professor said, "Maybe I might be able to help you, kid." So, I went in that direction. (Laughter) As you can never say no to a kid. And so then, three months later, I finally nailed down a harsh deadline with this guy, and I get into his lab, I get all excited, and then I sit down, I start opening my mouth and talking, and five seconds later, he calls in another Ph.D. Ph.D.s just flock into this little room, and they're just firing these questions at me, and by the end, I kind of felt like I was in a clown car. There were 20 Ph.D.s, plus me and the professor crammed into this tiny office space, with them firing these rapid-fire questions at me, trying to sink my procedure. How unlikely is that? I mean, pshhh. (Laughter) However, subjecting myself to that interrogation -- I answered all their questions, and I guessed on quite a few but I got them right -- and I finally landed the lab space I needed. But it was shortly afterwards that I discovered my once brilliant procedure had something like a million holes in it, and over the course of seven months, I painstakingly filled each and every one of those holes. The result? One small paper sensor that costs three cents and takes five minutes to run. This makes it 168 times faster, over 26,000 times less expensive, and over 400 times more sensitive than our current standard for pancreatic cancer detection. (Applause) One of the best parts of the sensor, though, is that it has close to 100 percent accuracy, and can detect the cancer in the earliest stages, when someone has close to 100 percent chance of survival. And so in the next two to five years, this sensor could potentially lift the pancreatic cancer survival rates from a dismal 5.5 percent to close to 100 percent, and it would do similar for ovarian and lung cancer. But it wouldn't stop there. By switching out that antibody, you can look at a different protein, thus, a different disease -- potentially any disease in the entire world. So that ranges from heart disease, to malaria, HIV, AIDS, as well as other forms of cancer -- anything. And so, hopefully one day, we can all have that one extra uncle, that one mother, that one brother, sister, we can have that one more family member to love. And that our hearts will be rid of that one disease burden that comes from pancreatic, ovarian and lung cancer, and potentially any disease. But through the Internet, anything is possible. Theories can be shared, and you don't have to be a professor with multiple degrees to have your ideas valued. It's a neutral space, where what you look like, age or gender -- it doesn't matter. It's just your ideas that count. For me, it's all about looking at the Internet in an entirely new way, to realize that there's so much more to it than just posting duck-face pictures of yourself online. (Laughter) You could be changing the world. So if a 15 year-old who didn't even know what a pancreas was could find a new way to detect pancreatic cancer -- just imagine what you could do. Thank you. (Applause)
Zažili ste už niečo tak bolestné a mätúce, že ste zrazu chceli len zistiť čo najviac, aby ste zážitok dokázali pochopiť? Keď som mal 13, blízky rodinný priateľ, ktorý mi bol ako strýko, umrel na rakovinu pankreasu. Keďže choroba postihla niekoho tak blízkeho, vedel som, že potrebujem zistiť viac, a tak som hľadal odpovede online. Na internete som našiel rôzne štatistiky o rakovine pankreasu. Informácie ma šokovali. Vo vyše 85 % prípadov rakovinu pankreasu diagnostikujú prineskoro, keď je šanca na prežitie menšia než 2 %. Prečo máme taký problém diagnostikovať rakovinu pankreasu? Dôvod? Moderná medicína dnes používa 60-ročnú techniku. Staršiu ako môj ocko. (Smiech) Okrem toho je aj hrozne drahá. Jeden test stojí 800 dolárov. A je značne nepresná, v 30 % prípadov sa ňou rakovina nezistí. Doktor by musel mať až komické podozrenie, že máte rakovinu, aby vám tento test urobil. Keď som to videl, vedel som, že musí existovať lepší spôsob. Určil som vedecké kritériá, ako by mal senzor vyzerať, aby bola diagnostika choroby efektívna. Senzor mal byť lacný, rýchly, jednoduchý, citlivý, selektívny, a čo najmenej invazívny. Je tu dôvod, prečo sa test za viac než 60 rokov nezmenil. Keď hľadáme známky rakoviny pankreasu, skúmame krvný obeh, ktorý priam oplýva množstvami proteínov a pritom hľadáme drobné rozdiely v malinkom množstve proteínu, len jedného z nich. Takmer nemožné. Vďaka mladíckemu optimizmu som sa však nedal odradiť (Aplauz) Obrátil som sa na dvoch najlepších priateľov tínedžera Google a Wikipediu. Vždy mi boli dobrými pomocníkmi pri domácich úlohách. Našiel som článok, ktorý obsahoval databázu viac než 8 000 rozličných proteínov, ktoré sú v krvi pacienta s rakovinou pankreasu. Rozhodol som sa a určiť si nový cieľ - prejsť si všetky proteíny a zistiť, ktoré by mohli poslúžiť ako biomarker pre rakovinu pankreasu. A aby som si to trošku zjednodušil, rozhodol som sa určiť si vedecké kritériá. Tu sú. Po prvé, konkrétny proteín by sa mal vo veľkých množstvách nachádzať v krvi všetkých postihnutých už v ranom štádiu, ale len a len ak ide o rakovinu. A tak som sa pracne prehrýzal touto syzifovskou úlohou, a napokon na 4000-ci pokus, keď som už takmer prišiel o rozum, som proteín našiel. Ten proteín sa volá mezotelín. Je to len obyčajný, priemerný proteín. Ak však máte rakovinu pankreasu, vaječníkov alebo pľúc, v krvi sa nachádza vo veľkých množstvách. Kľúčové je však aj to, že sa ho toľko v krvi nachádza aj v ranom štádiu, keď je šanca na prežitie ešte takmer 100 %. Keď som už mal spoľahlivý proteín, sústredil som sa na to, ako ho odhaliť a diagnostikovať tak rakovinu. Prelom som dosiahol na nepravdepodobnom mieste, možno tom najnepravdepodobnejšom pre inovácie: na hodine biológie, na úplnom pohrebisku inovácii. (Smiech) (Aplauz) Prepašoval som si na hodinu článok o tých vecičkách, o uhlíkových nanorúrkach. Sú to dlhé tenké rúrky z uhlíka, hrubé ako atóm, len jednu 50 000-cínu priemeru ľudského vlasu. No napriek extrémne malým rozmerom, majú neuveriteľné vlastnosti. Sú trošku ako superhrdinovia materiálového inžinierstva. A keď som pod lavicou na biológii čítal tento článok, mali sme dávať pozor na výklad o ďalších super molekulách, o protilátkach. Protilátky sú skvelé, lebo reagujú len s jedným špecifickým proteínom. Nie sú však ani zďaleka také zaujímavé ako uhlíkové nanorúrky. A vtedy, keď som tak sedel v triede, mi zrazu napadlo: mohol by som skombinovať to, o čom čítam, uhlíkové nanorúrky, s tým, o čom sa hovorilo na hodine, s protilátkami. V podstate by som mohol do siete uhlíkových rúrok, pridať nejaké z týchto protilátok, a získal by som sieť, ktorá reaguje len s jedným proteínom, ale vďaka vlastnostiam nanorúrok, by sa tiež zmenili elektrické vlastnosti na základe množstva prítomného proteínu. Je tu však háčik. Takéto siete uhlíkových nanorúrok sú mimoriadne krehké a preto potrebujú nejakú podporu. Preto som sa rozhodol použiť papier. Vyrobiť rakovinový senzor z papiera je asi také ťažké ako upiecť moje obľúbené čokoládové keksíky. Vezmete vodu, vlejete do nej nanorúrky, pridáte protilátky, zmiešate, vezmete papier, namočíte ho, vysušíte a môžete diagnostikovať rakovinu. (Aplauz) Potom mi zrazu napadlo čosi, čo trošku skazilo môj úžasný plán. Nemôžem robiť výskum rakoviny na kuchynskej linke. Mamka by z toho nebola nadšená. Tak som sa rozhodol ísť do labáku. Spísal som rozpočet, zoznam materiálu, časový rozvrh a postup a poslal to e-mailom 200 profesorom na Univerzitu Johna Hopkinsa do Národného inštitútu pre zdravie, proste každému, kto má niečo dočinenia s rakovinou pankreasu. Sedel som a čakal na prílev pozitívnych odpovedí, pochvál, že som génius, ktorý všetkých zachráni. A... (Smiech) Musel som čeliť realite. Za niečo viac než mesiac som dostal odmietavú odpoveď na 199 z 200 e-mailov. Istý profesor si dôkladne prešiel celý postup - - ani neviem, kde si našiel toľko času - prešiel si ho a vysvetlil mi, prečo je každý jeden krok to najhoršie, čo sa dá urobiť. Profesori o mojej práci očividne nezmýšľali tak dobre ako ja. Ale našlo sa aj svetlo na konci tunela. Istý profesor povedal: „Možno ti pomôžem, chlapče." Chytil som sa toho. (Smiech) Lebo deťom predsa nepoviete nie. A potom, o 3 mesiace neskôr, som si s profesorom dohodol termín a prišiel do jeho labáku, celý natešený som si sadol a len čo som otvoril ústa, zavolal ďalšieho vedca s PhD. Zrazu bola miestnosť plná ľudí s doktorátom, ktorí ma zasypávali otázkami, až som sa cítil ako keby som prišiel z cirkusu. V malinkej kancelárii sa so mnou a profesorom tlačili 20 doktori a zasypávali ma otázkami, aby podkopali moju teóriu. Ako nepravdepodobne to znie? (Smiech) Po tomto výsluchu, keď som odpovedal na všetky otázky, občas som len hádal, ale trafil som sa, som konečne dostal priestor v labáku. No čoskoro som zistil, že v mojom geniálnom postupe je asi milión medzier a v priebehu 7 mesiacov, som ich všetky jednu po druhej zaplnil. Výsledok? Malý papierový test, čo stojí 3 centy a trvá 5 minút. Čiže je 168 ráz rýchlejší, viac ako 26 000 ráz lacnejší a viac než 400 ráz citlivejší než štandardný test na rakovinu pankreasu. (Aplauz) Najlepšie na teste však je, že dosahuje 100-percentnú presnosť a chorobu ním zistíte aj v ranom štádiu, keď je šanca na prežitie ešte takmer 100 %. Takže za 5 rokov by test mohol zlepšiť vyhliadky na prežitie pri rakovine pankreasu zo žalostných 5,5 percenta na takmer 100 percent. A to platí aj pre rakovinu vaječníkov a pľúc. Ale tým sa to nekončí. Ak zmeníte protilátku, môžete hľadať iný proteín a s ním inú chorobu, možno akúkoľvek chorobu na svete. Od ochorení srdca, až po maláriu, HIV, AIDS, iných druhov rakoviny - čokoľvek. A dúfam, že už nikomu rakovina nevezme strýka, mamu, brata, sestru, a že sa budeme tešiť z člena rodiny ktorý by inak nebol medzi nami. Zo srdca nám spadne kameň v podobe rakoviny pankreasu, vaječníkov a pľúc, a možno akejkoľvek choroby. Na internete je možné všetko. Môžete sa podeliť o teórie a nemusíte byť profesor s neviemkoľkými titulmi, aby vaše nápady niekto ocenil. Je to neutrálna pôda, kde nezáleží na tom, ako vyzeráte, koľko máte rokov a či ste muž alebo žena. Záleží len na vašich myšlienkach. Pre mňa je to všetko o používaní internetu úplne novým spôsobom. Treba si uvedomiť, že sú tam aj iné možnosti ako zverejňovanie fotiek s perami vystrčenými na kačičku. Cez internet môžete zmeniť svet. Ak 15-ročné decko, čo nevedelo ani, kde pankreas je, dokázalo nájsť nový spôsob diagnostiky rakoviny, len si predstavte, čo dokážete vy. Ďakujem. (Aplauz)