In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radium. Claimed to have restorative properties, radium was added to toothpaste, medicine, water, and food. A glowing, luminous green, it was also used in beauty products and jewelry. It wasn't until the mid-20th century we realized that radium's harmful effects as a radioactive element outweighed its visual benefits. Unfortunately, radium isn't the only pigment that historically seemed harmless or useful but turned out to be deadly. That lamentable distinction includes a trio of colors and pigments that we've long used to decorate ourselves and the things we make: white, green, and orange. Our story begins with white. As far back as the 4th century BCE, the Ancient Greeks treated lead to make the brilliant white pigment we know today. The problem? In humans, lead is directly absorbed into the body and distributed to the blood, soft tissues, and mineralized tissues. Once in the nervous system, lead mimics and disrupts the normal functions of calcium, causing damages ranging from learning disabilities to high blood pressure. Yet the practice of using this toxic pigment continued across time and cultures. Lead white was the only practical choice for white oil or tempera paint until the 19th century. To make their paint, artists would grind a block of lead into powder, exposing highly toxic dust particles. The pigment's liberal use resulted in what was known as painter's colic, or what we'd now call lead poisoning. Artists who worked with lead complained of palseys, melancholy, coughing, enlarged retinas, and even blindness. But lead white's density, opacity, and warm tone were irresistible to artists like Vermeer, and later, the Impressionists. Its glow couldn't be matched, and the pigment continued to be widely used until it was banned in the 1970s. As bad as all that sounds, white's dangerous effects pale in comparison to another, more wide-spread pigment, green. Two synthetic greens called Scheele's Green and Paris Green were first introduced in the 18th century. They were far more vibrant and flashy than the relatively dull greens made from natural pigments, so they quickly became popular choices for paint as well as dye for textiles, wallpaper, soaps, cake decorations, toys, candy, and clothing. These green pigments were made from a compound called cupric hydrogen arsenic. In humans, exposure to arsenic can damage the way cells communicate and function. And high levels of arsenic have been directly linked to cancer and heart disease. As a result, 18th century fabric factory workers were often poisoned, and women in green dresses reportedly collapsed from exposure to arsenic on their skin. Bed bugs were rumored not to live in green rooms, and it's even been speculated that Napoleon died from slow arsenic poisoning from sleeping in his green wallpapered bedroom. The intense toxicity of these green stayed under wraps until the arsenic recipe was published in 1822. And a century later, it was repurposed as an insecticide. Synthetic green was probably the most dangerous color in widespread use, but at least it didn't share radium's property of radioactivity. Another color did, though - orange. Before World War II, it was common for manufacturers of ceramic dinnerware to use uranium oxide in colored glazes. The compound produced brilliant reds and oranges, which were appealing attributes, if not for the radiation they emitted. Of course, radiation was something we were unaware of until the late 1800s, let alone the associated cancer risks, which we discovered much later. During World War II, the U.S. government confiscated all uranium for use in bomb development. However, the atomic energy commission relaxed these restrictions in 1959, and depleted uranium returned to ceramics and glass factory floors. Orange dishes made during the next decade may still have some hazardous qualities on their surfaces to this day. Most notably, vintage fiestaware reads positive for radioactivity. And while the levels are low enough that they don't officially pose a health risk if they're on a shelf, the U.S. EPA warns against eating food off of them. Though we still occasionally run into issues with synthetic food dyes, our scientific understanding has helped us prune hazardous colors out of our lives.
1898年,居里夫人与皮埃尔·居里发现了镭。 镭被宣称具有修护的特性。 牙膏、 药物、 水、 食物中,都会添加镭。 由于镭的绿色带有光泽感, 它也用于美容产品和珠宝制作。 直到19世纪中期, 我们才意识到 镭,作为一种放射性元素, 带来的害处超过了其好处。 然而,不幸的是在历史上, 镭并不是唯一的看上去无害 实则致命的颜料。 长期以来,我们使用了三种颜料 用来装饰自己及物品,它们是: 白, 绿, 橙。 我们先来说说白色。 早在公元前四世纪, 古希腊人使用铅来制作白色颜料。 问题在于什么呢? 对于人而言,铅可以直接吸收进人体 进入血液、 软组织、 以及矿化组织。 铅一旦进入神经系统, 会模仿并干扰钙元素的正常功能, 造成的损害轻则使人出现学习障碍, 重则导致高血压。 但使用这种剧毒颜料的工艺 在很多文化中持续了很久。 直到19世纪, 铅白是唯一的 白油和蛋彩颜料的实用选择。 艺术家为了作画, 会将铅块磨成粉末 这样,他们会充分接触这些剧毒的粉尘。 这种颜料的过分使用 导致了画家们的腹绞痛, 我们现在称之为铅中毒。 使用铅的画家会出现肌肉麻痹, 心情忧郁, 咳嗽, 视网膜放大, 甚至失明。 但是铅白的质感、不透明性和温暖的色调 令包括弗美尔及之后的 印象派画家难以放弃。 没有其他颜料可以媲美铅白的光泽, 这种颜料继续广泛使用, 直到1970年代才将其禁止。 如上所述, 铅白带来的危险性 与另一种颜料相比则顿矢光芒。 那就是广泛使用的绿色。 谢勒绿和巴黎绿是 两种合成的绿色色素, 18世纪时首次问世。 相比于天然染料较沉闷的绿色, 它们的颜色更加明亮鲜艳, 因此这两种色素迅速流行, 用于绘画、 纺织品染色、 壁纸、 香皂、 蛋糕装饰、 玩具、 糖果、 衣物。 这些绿色的染料由某种化合物制成, 这种化合物称为砷酸铜。 人如果接触砷, 会损伤细胞交换及运作功能。 高剂量的砷与癌症和心脏疾病直接相关。 高剂量的砷与癌症和心脏疾病直接相关。 因此在十八世纪, 纺织厂工人经常出现中毒, 且据报道, 穿绿裙子的女性因皮肤接触 裙子上的砷而昏倒。 还有传言说 臭虫也不会生活在绿色的房间中, 人们甚至推测 拿破仑就死于慢性砷中毒, 因为他睡在自己那 铺着绿色壁纸的卧室。 这种剧毒的绿色一直处于保密状态, 直到1822年发布了砷的配方。 一个世纪之后, 这种化合物摇身一变成为杀虫剂。 合成绿色染料或许是 广泛使用的颜色中最为危险的, 但至少它并没有镭的放射性。 而另一种颜色则 具备这一特性——橙色。 第二次世界大战之前, 陶瓷餐具制造商在釉彩中 使用氧化铀式非常普遍的, 这种化合物能够产生 鲜艳的红色和橙色, 如果不是因为放射性, 那么这些颜色都是吸引人的特点。 当然,放射性是在 19世纪晚期才为我们意识到的, 更不用提在更久之后, 才发现的与辐射相关的癌症风险。 在第二次世界大战期间, 美国政府没收了 全部的铀用以发展核武器。 然而在1959年, 原子能委员会放松了管制, 铀重新回到了瓷器和玻璃工厂。 接下来十年中 生产的橙色餐盘表面 很可能至今仍然具有危险的特质。 最重要的是,经典的节日用具 仍在监测放射性时被显示为阳性。 虽然如果这些餐盘被束之高阁时 辐射较少不至于构成健康威胁, 美国环保局发出警告 不要吃上面的食物。 我们虽然偶尔会遇到合成的食物染料, 但科学认知已经帮我们在生活中 去掉了那些危险的颜色。