This technology made a very important impact on us. It changed the way our history developed. But it's a technology so pervasive, so invisible, that we, for a long time, forgot to take it into account when we talked about human evolution. But we see the results of this technology, still. So let's make a little test. So everyone of you turns to their neighbor please. Turn and face your neighbors. Please, also on the balcony. Smile. Smile. Open the mouths. Smile, friendly. (Laughter) Do you -- Do you see any Canine teeth? (Laughter) Count Dracula teeth in the mouths of your neighbors? Of course not. Because our dental anatomy is actually made, not for tearing down raw meat from bones or chewing fibrous leaves for hours. It is made for a diet which is soft, mushy, which is reduced in fibers, which is very easily chewable and digestible. Sounds like fast food, doesn't it.
Ova tehnologija je veoma uticala na nas. Promenila je način na koji se naša istorija razvijala. Ali ta tehnologija je toliko prožimajuća, tako nevidljiva, da je dugo vremena nismo uzimali u obzir kada smo govorili o ljudskoj evoluciji. Međutim, i dalje vidimo rezultate ove tehnologije. Hajde da uradimo mali test. Zamolio bih da se svako od vas okrene ka svom susedu. Okrenite se i suočite sa svojim susedom. Molim vas, i vi na balkonu. Nasmešite se. Nasmešite se. Otvorite usta. Nasmešite se, prijateljski. (Smeh) Da li - Da li vidite očnjake? (Smeh) Zube kao kod grofa Drakule u ustima vašeg suseda? Naravno da ne. Zato što je naša dentalna anatomija zapravo namenjena ne kidanju sirovog mesa sa kostiju ili žvakanju vlaknastog lišća satima. Napravljena je za ishranu koja je meka, kašasta, sa manje vlakana, može se veoma lako sažvakati i variti. Zvuči kao brza hrana, zar ne?
(Laughter)
(Smeh)
It's for cooked food. We carry in our face the proof that cooking, food transformation, made us what we are. So I would suggest that we change how we classify ourselves. We talk about ourselves as omnivores. I would say, we should call ourselves coctivors -- (Laughter) from coquere, to cook. We are the animals who eat cooked food. No, no, no, no. Better -- to live of cooked food. So cooking is a very important technology. It's technology. I don't know how you feel, but I like to cook for entertainment. And you need some design to be successful. So, cooking is a very important technology, because it allowed us to acquire what brought you all here: the big brain, this wonderful cerebral cortex we have. Because brains are expensive. Those have to pay tuition fees know. (Laughter) But it's also, metabolically speaking, expensive. You now, our brain is two to three percent of the body mass, but actually it uses 25 percent of the total energy we use. It's very expensive. Where does the energy come from. Of course, from food. If we eat raw food, we cannot release really the energy. So this ingenuity of our ancestors, to invent this most marvelous technology. Invisible -- everyone of us does it every day, so to speak. Cooking made it possible that mutations, natural selections, our environment, could develop us.
Namenjena je kuvanoj hrani. Na našem licu nosimo dokaz da nas je kuvanje, transformacija hrane, načinilo onim što smo. Predložio bih da promenimo način na koji se klasifikujemo. Govorimo o sebi kao o svaštojedima. Pre bih rekao da bi trebalo da se nazovemo koktivorima - (Smeh) od reči "coquere", što znači kuvati. Mi smo životinje koje jedu kuvanu hranu. Ne, ne, ne. Bolje - žive od kuvane hrane. Kuvanje je veoma važna tehnologija. To je tehnologija. Ne znam kako se vi osećate, ali ja volim da kuvam radi zabave. Treba vam neki dizajn da biste bili uspešni. Dakle, kuvanje je veoma važna tehnologija, jer nam je omogućila da dobijemo ono što vas je sve ovde dovelo: veliki mozak, tu divnu moždanu koru koji imamo. Jer mozgovi su skupi. Oni koji moraju da plaćaju školarinu, znaju. (Smeh) Ali su i, metabolički govoreći, skupi. Znate, naš mozak je dva ili tri procenta telesne mase, ali zapravo koristi 25 procenata ukupne energije koju potrošimo. To je veoma skupo. Odakle dolazi energija? Naravno iz hrane. Ako jedemo sirovu hranu, ne možemo zapravo da oslobodimo energiju. To je genijalnost naših predaka, da izmisle tu krajnje veličanstvenu tehnologiju. Nevidljivu - svako od nas je koristi svaki dan, da tako kažemo. Kuvanje je omogućilo, da nas mutacije, prirodni odabir, naša okolina razviju.
So if we think about this unleashing human potential, which was possible by cooking and food, why do we talk so badly about food? Why is it always do and don'ts and it's good for you, it's not good for you? I think the good news for me would be if we could go back and talk about the unleashing, the continuation of the unleashing of human potential. Now, cooking allowed also that we became a migrant species. We walked out of Africa two times. We populated all the ecologies. If you can cook, nothing can happen to you, because whatever you find, you will try to transform it. It keeps also your brain working. Now the very easy and simple technology which was developed actually runs after this formula. Take something which looks like food, transform it, and it gives you a good, very easy, accessible energy.
Ako razmislimo o ovom oslobođenom ljudskom potencijalu, koji je bio moguć zahvaljujući kuvanju i hrani, zašto pričamo loše stvari o hrani? Zašto je tu uvek šta sme, a šta ne i to je dobro za tebe, to nije dobro? Mislim da bi za mene bila dobra vest ako bismo mogli da se vratimo unazad i govorimo o oslobađanju, o nastavku oslobađanja ljudskog potencijala. Pored toga, kuvanje nam je omogućilo da postanemo vrsta koja se seli. Dva puta smo odlazili iz Afrike. Naselili smo sve ekologije. Ako umeš da kuvaš, ništa ti se neće desiti, jer šta god da nađeš, pokušaćeš da transformišeš. To takođe održava tvoj mozak u radnom stanju. Veoma laka i jednostavna tehnologija koja je razvijena zapravo funkcioniše po ovoj formuli. Uzmi nešto što liči na hranu, transformiši ga i ono će ti dati dobru, veoma laku, pristupačnu energiju.
This technology affected two organs, the brain and the gut, which it actually affected. The brain could grow, but the gut actually shrunk. Okay, it's not obvious to be honest. (Laughter) But it shrunk to 60 percent of primate gut of my body mass. So because of having cooked food, it's easier to digest. Now having a large brain, as you know, is a big advantage, because you can actually influence your environment. You can influence your own technologies you have invented. You can continue to innovate and invent. Now the big brain did this also with cooking. But how did it actually run this show? How did it actually interfere? What kind of criteria did it use? And this is actually taste reward and energy. You know we have up to five tastes, three of them sustain us. Sweet -- energy. Umami -- this is a meaty taste. You need proteins for muscles, recovery. Salty, because you need salt, otherwise your electric body will not work. And two tastes which protect you -- bitter and sour, which are against poisonous and rotten material. But of course, they are hard-wired but we use them still in a sophisticated way. Think about bittersweet chocolate; or think about the acidity of yogurt -- wonderful -- mixed with strawberry fruits.
Ova tehnologija je uticala na dva organa, mozak i creva. Mozak je mogao da raste, ali se crevo zapravo skupilo. U redu, nije baš očigledno, da budemo iskreni. (Smeh) Ali skupilo se na 60 procenata creva primata, moje telesne mase. Dakle, postojanje kuvane hrane omogućava lakše varenje. Ali imati veliki mozak, kao što znate, velika je prednost, jer možeš da utičeš na svoju okolinu. Možeš da utičeš na sopstvene tehnologije koje si izmislio. Možeš da nastaviš sa inovacijama i izumima. Upravo je veliki mozak to uradio sa kuvanjem. Ali kako je pokrenuo ovaj šou? Kako se zapravo umešao? Koje je kriterijume koristio? To su nagrada, ukus i energija. Znate da imamo pet ukusa, tri od njih nas održavaju. Slatko - energija. Umami - to je ukus za meso. Potrebni su vam proteini za mišiće, oporavak. Slano, jer ti je potrebna so, inače tvoje električno telo ne bi funkcionisalo. I dva ukusa koja te štite - gorko i kiselo, koji su protiv otrovnih i trulih materija. Naravno, oni su urođeni ali mi ih i dalje koristimo na sofisticiran način. Setite se gorko-slatke čokolade; ili pomislite na kiselost jogurta - divno - pomešanu sa jagodama.
So we can make mixtures of all this kind of thing because we know that, in cooking, we can transform it to the form. Reward: this is a more complex and especially integrative form of our brain with various different elements -- the external states, our internal states, how do we feel, and so on are put together. And something which maybe you don't like but you are so hungry that you really will be satisfied to eat. So satisfaction was a very important part. And as I say, energy was necessary.
Dakle, možemo praviti mešavine svih tih stvari jer znamo da ih kuvanjem možemo preoblikovati u neki oblik. Nagrada: to je kompleksniji i posebno integrativni oblik našeg mozga sa mnogim različitim elementima - spoljna stanja, naša unutrašnja stanja, kako se osećamo, itd., su povezana. I nešto što možda ne volite ali ste toliko gladni da biste bili zadovoljni da to pojedete. Dakle, zadovoljstvo je veoma važan deo. I ja kažem, energija je bila neophodna.
Now how did the gut actually participate in this development? And the gut is a silent voice -- it's going more for feelings. I use the euphemism digestive comfort -- actually -- it's a digestive discomfort, which the gut is concerned with. If you get a stomach ache, if you get a little bit bloated, was not the right food, was not the right cooking manipulation or maybe other things went wrong. So my story is a tale of two brains, because it might surprise you, our gut has a full-fledged brain. All the managers in the room say, "You don't tell me something new, because we know, gut feeling. This is what we are using." (Laughter) And actually you use it and it's actually useful. Because our gut is connected to our emotional limbic system, they do speak with each other and make decisions. But what it means to have a brain there is that, not only the big brain has to talk with the food, the food has to talk with the brain, because we have to learn actually how to talk to the brains.
Kako su creva zaista učestvovala u ovom razvoju? Creva su zapravo tihi glas - više utiču na osećanja. Ja koristim eufemizam digestivni komfor - zapravo - to je digestivna nelagodnost, za koju su zadužena creva. Ako vas boli stomak, ako ste malo naduti, nešto nije bilo u redu sa hranom, sa procesom kuvanja ili je možda neka druga stvar pošla naopako. U suštini, moja priča je bajka o dva mozga, jer, možda će vas iznenaditi, naš stomak ima samostalan mozak. Svi menadžeri u prostoriji kažu: "Ništa mi novo nisi rekao, mi znamo taj osećaj u stomaku (intuiciju). To je nešto čime se mi služimo." (Smeh) I zaista ga i koristite i koristan je. Zato što su creva povezana sa našim emotivnim limbičkim sistemom, oni međusobno razgovaraju i donose odluke. Ali imati mozak tu, ne znači samo to da veliki mozak mora da razgovara sa hranom, već hrana mora da razgovara sa velikim mozgom jer moramo da naučimo kako da razgovaramo sa mozgovima.
Now if there's a gut brain, we should also learn to talk with this brain. Now 150 years ago, anatomists described very, very carefully -- here is a model of a wall of a gut. I took the three elements -- stomach, small intestine and colon. And within this structure, you see these two pinkish layers, which are actually the muscle. And between this muscle, they found nervous tissues, a lot of nervous tissues, which penetrate actually the muscle -- penetrate the submucosa, where you have all the elements for the immune system. The gut is actually the largest immune system, defending your body. It penetrates the mucosa. This is the layer which actually touches the food you are swallowing and you digest, which is actually the lumen. Now if you think about the gut, the gut is -- if you could stretch it -- 40 meters long, the length of a tennis court. If we could unroll it, get out all the folds and so on, it would have 400 sq. meters of surface.
Dakle, ako postoji mozak u crevima, morali bismo da naučimo kako da razgovaramo sa njim. Pre 150 godina, anatomi su opisali, veoma, veoma detaljno ovaj model zida creva. Uzeću ova tri elementa - želudac, tanko i debelo crevo. U okviru tih struktura, vidite ova dva rozikasta sloja, koji zapravo predstavljaju mišiće. Između tih mišića nalazi se nervno tkivo, mnogo nervnih tkiva, koji mišić probija - probija podsluznicu gde imate sve elemente za imuni sistem. Creva su zapravo najveći imuni sistem, koji štiti vaše telo. Probija i sluznicu. To je sloj koji dodiruje hranu koju gutate i koju varite, a što je zapravo lumen. Ako razmislite o crevima, creva su - ako biste mogli da ih rastegnete - 40 metara duga, to je dužina teniskog igrališta. Ako bismo mogli da ih odvijemo, poravnamo sve nabore i slično, imala bi 400 kvadratnih metara površine.
And now this brain takes care over this, to move it with the muscles and to do defend the surface and, of course, digest our food we cook. So if we give you a specification, this brain, which is autonomous, have 500 million nerve cells, 100 million neurons -- so around the size of a cat brain, so there sleeps a little cat -- thinks for itself, optimizes whatever it digests. It has 20 different neuron types. It's got the same diversity you find actually in a pig brain, where you have 100 billion neurons. It has autonomous organized microcircuits, has these programs which run. It senses the food; it knows exactly what to do. It senses it by chemical means and very importantly by mechanical means, because it has to move the food -- it has to mix all the various elements which we need for digestion. This control of muscle is very, very important, because, you know, there can be reflexes. If you don't like a food, especially if you're a child, you gag. It's this brain which makes this reflex. And then finally, it controls also the secretion of this molecular machinery, which actually digests the food we cook.
Taj mozak se brine o ovome, da taj sloj pomera mišiće i brani površinu i naravno, vari hranu koju kuvamo. Dakle, ako vam damo specifikaciju, ovaj mozak, koji je autonoman, ima 500 miliona nervnih ćelija, 100 miliona neurona - otprilike veličine mozga mačke, dakle tu spava mala maca - misli za sebe, optimizuje sve što svari. Ima 20 različitih vrsta neurona. Ima istu raznovrsnost koju možete naći u mozgu svinje, gde se nalazi 100 milijardi neurona. Ima autonomno organizovane mikrokontrolere, ima programe koje izvršava. Oseća hranu; zna tačno šta treba da radi. Oseća je hemijskim sredstvima i što je važno takođe mehaničkim sredstvima, jer mora da pomera hranu - mora da meša sve različite elemente koji su nam potrebni za varenje. Ta kontrola mišića je veoma, veoma važna, jer može doći do refleksa. Ako ne volite hranu, posebno kada ste dete, povratite. Upravo ovaj mozak dovodi do tog refleksa. I na kraju, on kontroliše lučenje ove molekularne mašinerije, koja zapravo vari hranu koju kuvamo.
Now how do the two brains work with each other? I took here a model from robotics -- it's called the Subsumption Architecture. What it means is that we have a layered control system. The lower layer, our gut brain, has its own goals -- digestion defense -- and we have the higher brain with the goal of integration and generating behaviors. Now both look -- and this is the blue arrows -- both look to the same food, which is in the lumen and in the area of your intestine. The big brain integrates signals, which come from the running programs of the lower brain, But subsumption means that the higher brain can interfere with the lower. It can replace, or it can inhibit actually, signals. So if we take two types of signals -- a hunger signal for example. If you have an empty stomach, your stomach produces a hormone called ghrelin. It's a very big signal; it's sent to the brain says, "Go and eat." You have stop signals -- we have up to eight stop signals. At least in my case, they are not listened to. (Laughter)
Pitanje je kako ta dva mozga rade jedan sa drugim? Ovde imam model iz robotike - zove se supsumcijska arhitektura. To znači da imamo slojevit kontrolni sistem. Niži sloj, naš stomačni mozak, ima svoje ciljeve - odbranu varenja - i imamo viši mozak sa ciljem integracije i generisanja ponašanja. Oba gledaju - to su ove plave strelice - oba gledaju ka istoj hrani, koja je u lumenu i u području vaših creva. Veliki mozak stvara signale, koji dolaze od pokrenutog programa nižeg mozga, ali supsumcija podrazumeva da viši mozak može da ometa niži. Može da zameni ili može čak da inhibira signale. Ako uzmemo dve vrste signala - signal za glad, na primer. Ako vam je želudac prazan, on proizvodi hormon koji se zove grelin. To je veoma veliki signal; šalje poruku mozgu koja kaže: "Idi da jedeš." Imate signale koji zaustavljaju - imamo ih osam. Barem u mom slučaju, njih niko ne sluša. (Smeh)
So what happens if the big brain in the integration overrides the signal? So if you override the hunger signal, you can have a disorder, which is called anorexia. Despite generating a healthy hunger signal, the big brain ignores it and activates different programs in the gut. The more usual case is overeating. It actually takes the signal and changes it, and we continue, even [though] our eight signals would say, "Stop, enough. We have transferred enough energy." Now the interesting thing is that, along this lower layer -- this gut -- the signal becomes stronger and stronger if undigested, but digestible, material could penetrate. This we found from bariatric surgery. That then the signal would be very, very high.
Dakle, šta se dešava ako veliki mozak u integraciji nadglasa signal? Ako nadglasate signal za glad, možete imati poremećaj, koji se zove anoreksija. Uprkos tome što se javlja zdrav signal za glad, veliki mozak ga ignoriše i aktivira druge programe u crevima. Mnogo češći slučaj je prejedanje. Signal se preuzima i menja i mi nastavljamo, iako bi naših osam signala reklo: "Stani, dosta. Dovoljno energije smo transformisali." Interesantna stvar je da duž nižeg sloja signal postaje sve jači i jači ako bi nesvaren, ali svarljiv materijal prošao. Ovo smo saznali iz barijatričke operacije, da bi tada signal bio veoma, veoma visok.
So now back to the cooking question and back to the design. We have learned to talk to the big brain -- taste and reward, as you know. Now what would be the language we have to talk to the gut brain that its signals are so strong that the big brain cannot ignore it? Then we would generate something all of us would like to have -- a balance between the hunger and the satiation. Now I give you, from our research, a very short claim. This is fat digestion. You have on your left an olive oil droplet, and this olive oil droplet gets attacked by enzymes. This is an in vitro experiment. It's very difficult to work in the intestine. Now everyone would expect that when the degradation of the oil happens, when the constituents are liberated, they disappear, they go away because they [were] absorbed. Actually, what happens is that a very intricate structure appears. And I hope you can see that there are some ring-like structures in the middle image, which is water. This whole system generates a huge surface to allow more enzymes to attack the remaining oil. And finally, on your right side, you see a bubbly, cell-like structure appearing, from which the body will absorb the fat. Now if we could take this language -- and this is a language of structures -- and make it longer-lasting, that it can go through the passage of the intestine, it would generate stronger signals.
Vratimo se pitanju kuvanja i dizajna. Naučili smo da razgovaramo sa velikim mozgom - ukus i nagrada, kao što već znate. Međutim, kojim bismo jezikom morali da razgovaramo sa mozgom u crevima da njegovi signali budu tako jaki da ih veliki mozak ne bi ignorisao? Onda bismo stvorili nešto što bismo svi voleli da imamo - ravnotežu između gladi i sitosti. Daću vam veoma kratku tvrdnju, iz našeg istraživanja. To je varenje masti. Na levoj strani imate kapljicu maslinovog ulja i tu kapljicu maslinovog ulja napadaju enzimi. Ovo je in vitro eksperiment. Veoma je teško raditi u crevima. Svako bi očekivao da kada dođe do razgradnje ulja, kada su konstituenti oslobođeni, oni nestaju, odlaze jer su bili apsorbovani. Međutim pojavljuje se veoma zapetljana konstrukcija. I nadam se da možete videti da u srednjoj slici postoje strukture nalik prstenu što predstavlja vodu. Taj ceo sistem stvara veliku površinu da bi dozvolio većem broju enzima da napadnu preostalo ulje. I konačno, na vašoj desnoj strani, vidite da se pojavljuje mehurasta, struktura slična ćeliji sa koje će telo da apsorbuje masti. Kada bismo mogli da uzmemo taj jezik - a to je jezik struktura - i načinimo ga dugotrajnijim, da bi mogao da ide kroz hodnike creva, mogao bi da generiše jače signale.
So our research -- and I think the research also at the universities -- are now fixing on these points to say: how can we actually -- and this might sound trivial now to you -- how can we change cooking? How can we cook that we have this language developed? So what we have actually, it's not an omnivore's dilemma. We have a coctivor's opportunity, because we have learned over the last two million years which taste and reward -- quite sophisticated to cook -- to please ourselves, to satisfy ourselves. If we add the matrix, if we add the structure language, which we have to learn, when we learn it, then we can put it back; and around energy, we could generate a balance, which comes out from our really primordial operation: cooking. So, to make cooking really a very important element, I would say even philosophers have to change and have to finally recognize that cooking is what made us.
Dakle, naše istraživanje - i mislim istraživanje i na univerzitetima - dorađuje te tačke da bismo rekli: kako možemo zapravo - i ovo će vam možda zvučati trivijalno - kako možemo da izmenimo kuvanje? Kako možemo da kuvamo da bismo razvili taj jezik? Dakle, ono što imamo nije dilema svaštojeda. Mi imamo potencijal koktivora, jer smo za proteklih dva miliona godina naučili koji ukus i nagrada - sasvim sofisticirano za kuvanje - nas mogu zadovoljiti. Ako dodamo matricu, ako dodamo jezik strukture, koji moramo naučiti, kada ga naučimo, onda ga možemo vratiti; i oko energije, bismo mogli da ostvarimo ravnotežu, koja dolazi od naše zaista iskonske operacije: kuvanja. Dakle, da bismo kuvanje učinili zaista važnim elementom, rekao bih da čak i filozofi moraju da se promene i konačno priznaju da nas je kuvanje stvorilo onim što smo.
So I would say, coquo ergo sum: I cook, therefore I am. Thank you very much.
Dakle, rekao bih: coquo ergo sum - Kuvam, dakle postojim. Hvala mnogo.
(Applause)
(Aplauz)