I have a doppelganger. (Laughter) Dr. Gero is a brilliant but slightly mad scientist in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga." If you look very carefully, you see that his skull has been replaced with a transparent Plexiglas dome so that the workings of his brain can be observed and also controlled with light. That's exactly what I do -- optical mind control.
Ja imam zlog dvojnika (Doppelganger). (Smeh) Dr Gero je sjajan ali pomalo lud naučnik iz Zmajeve kugle Z "Android Sage". Ako pogledate pažljivo, videćete da je njegova lobanja zamenjena providnim svodom od pleksiglasa kako bi rad njegovog mozga mogao biti posmatran i takođe kontrolisan svetlošću. To je upravo ono što ja radim -- optička kontrola misli.
(Laughter)
(Smeh)
But in contrast to my evil twin who lusts after world domination, my motives are not sinister. I control the brain in order to understand how it works. Now wait a minute, you may say, how can you go straight to controlling the brain without understanding it first? Isn't that putting the cart before the horse? Many neuroscientists agree with this view and think that understanding will come from more detailed observation and analysis. They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons, we would understand the brain." But think for a moment what that means. Even if we could measure what every cell is doing at all times, we would still have to make sense of the recorded activity patterns, and that's so difficult, chances are we'll understand these patterns just as little as the brains that produce them.
Ali za razliku od mog zlog blizanca, koji žudi za svetskom dominacijom, moji motivi nisu grešni. Ja kontrolišem mozak kako bih razumeo način na koji radi. Čekaj malo, možete reći, kako možeš ići pravo na kontrolisanje mozga ako ga prvenstveno ne razumeš? Zar to nije nešto kao uprezanje terentnih kola pre dovođenja konja? Mnogi neuronaučnici su saglasni sa ovim gledištem i misle da će razumevanje doći tek nakon detaljnih opservacija i analiza. Oni kažu, "Kada bismo mogli snimiti aktivnost neurona, razumeli bismo mozak." Ali razmislite na trenutak šta to znači. Čak i ukoliko bismo mogli da izmerimo šta svaka ćelija radi svo vreme, i dalje bismo morali da pronađemo smisao u modelima snimanih aktivnosti, a to je toliko komplikovano, šanse da razumemo te modele su jednako male koliko i razumevanje mozga koji ih produkuje.
Take a look at what brain activity might look like. In this simulation, each black dot is one nerve cell. The dot is visible whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse. There's 10,000 neurons here. So you're looking at roughly one percent of the brain of a cockroach. Your brains are about 100 million times more complicated. Somewhere, in a pattern like this, is you, your perceptions, your emotions, your memories, your plans for the future. But we don't know where, since we don't know how to read the pattern. We don't understand the code used by the brain. To make progress, we need to break the code. But how? An experienced code-breaker will tell you that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean, it's essential to be able to play with them, to rearrange them at will. So in this situation too, to decode the information contained in patterns like this, watching alone won't do. We need to rearrange the pattern. In other words, instead of recording the activity of neurons, we need to control it. It's not essential that we can control the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some. The more targeted our interventions, the better. And I'll show you in a moment how we can achieve the necessary precision.
Pogledajte kako bi moždana aktivnost mogla da izgleda. U ovoj simulaciji, svaka crna tačka predstavlja jednu nervnu ćeliju. Tačka je vidljiva kada god ćelija ispali električni impuls. Ovde je prikazano 10000 neurona. Tako da vi gledate, u gruboj proceni, jedan procenat mozga bubašvabe. Vaš mozak je oko 100 miliona puta komplikovaniji. Negde se nalazi model sličan ovom, tu ste vi, vaša percepcija, vaše emocije, pamćenje, vaši planovi za budućnost. Ali ne znamo gde, s obzirom da ne umemo da pročitamo te modele. Ne razumemo kod koji koristi naš mozak. Da bi napravili pomak, potrebno je da otkrijemo šifru. Ali kako? Iskusna osoba u dešifrovanju će vam reći da kako biste razumeli značenje simbola u šifri, morate biti u stanju da se igrate njima, da možete da ih reorganizujete. Tako, u ovoj situaciji takođe, da biste dekodirali informaciju sadržanu u ovakvom modelu, samo posmatranje neće pomoći; potrebno je da reorganizujemo model. Drugim rečima, umesto da snimamo aktivnost neurona, potrebno je da je kontrolišemo. Nije neophodno da možemo da kontrolišemo aktivnost svih neurona u mozgu, samo nekih. Mada što je veći deo zahvaćen našim intervencijama, tim bolje. I pokazaću vam za momenat kako možemo postići neophodnu preciznost.
And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose, I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system will at once unravel all its mysteries. But we'll certainly learn a lot. Now, I'm by no means the first person to realize how powerful a tool intervention is. The history of attempts to tinker with the function of the nervous system is long and illustrious. It dates back at least 200 years, to Galvani's famous experiments in the late 18th century and beyond. Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched when he connected the lumbar nerve to a source of electrical current. This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental, nugget of the neural code: that information is written in the form of electrical impulses. Galvani's approach of probing the nervous system with electrodes has remained state-of-the-art until today, despite a number of drawbacks. Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude. It's hard to do in animals that run around, and there is a physical limit to the number of wires that can be inserted simultaneously.
I s obzirom na to da sam realističan, pre nego grandiozan, ne tvrdim da će mogućnost kontrole funkcija nervnog sistema odmah razotkriti sve misterije. Ali sigurno je da će se naučiti dosta. Ja sam bez sumnje prva osoba koja shvata moć ove vrste intervencija. Istorija pokušaja petljanja sa funkcijama nervnog sistema je dugačka i slavna. Datira oko 200 godina unazad, do čuvenih Galvanovih eksperimenata pri kraju XVIII veka i dalje. Galvan je pokazao da se noga žabe zgrči kada poveže lumbalni nerv sa izvorom električne struje. Ovaj eksperiment je otkrio prvu, i možda najbitniju, stvar o neuralnom kodu: da je informacija zapisana u formi električnih impulsa. Galvanov pristup stimuliranja nervnog sistema elektrodama je ostao dominantan pristup sve do danas, uprkos njegovim brojnim manama. Zabadanje žica u mozak je bez sumnje prilično surovo. Teško je da se to radi sa životinjama koje jure unaokolo, a tu je i fizički limit koji se odnosi na broj žica koje je moguće simultano priključiti.
So around the turn of the last century, I started to think, "Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic and turn it upside down?" So instead of inserting a wire into one spot of the brain, re-engineer the brain itself so that some of its neural elements become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals such as a flash of light. Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light, overcome many of the obstacles to discovery. First, it's clearly a non-invasive, wireless form of communication. And second, just as in a radio broadcast, you can communicate with many receivers at once. You don't need to know where these receivers are, and it doesn't matter if these receivers move -- just think of the stereo in your car. It gets even better, for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers out of materials that are encoded in DNA. So each nerve cell with the right genetic makeup will spontaneously produce a receiver that allows us to control its function. I hope you'll appreciate the beautiful simplicity of this concept. There's no high-tech gizmos here, just biology revealed through biology.
Tako sam krajem prošlog veka, počeo da razmišljam, kako bi bilo divno kad bi neko mogao da izvrne ovu logiku. Tako da umesto ubacivanja žice u neku tačku mozga, rekonstruišemo sam mozak tako da neki od neuralnih elemenata postanu sposobni da odgovaraju na difuznu emisiju signala, kao što su to snopovi svetlosti. Takav pristup bi bukvalno, dok trepneš, prevazišao mnoge prepreke na putu do otkrića. Prvo, očigledno je neinvazivan, bežični oblik komunikacije. I drugo, baš kao i pri radio emitovanju, može se komunicirati sa mnogim prijemnicima odjednom. Nije potrebno da znate gde se nalaze primaoci. I nije važno ukoliko su ovi prijemnici u pokretu -- samo pomislite na muzički uređaj u svom autu. I postaje još i bolje, jer se ispostavlja da možemo proizvoditi prijemnike od materijala koji je kodiran u DNK. Tako će svaka nervna ćelija sa pravim genetičkim uređenjem spontano proizvoditi prijemnik koji će nam omogućiti da kontrolišemo njenu funkciju. Nadam se da ćete ceniti predivnu jednostavnost ovog koncepta. Ne postoje komplikovani visoko tehnološki koncepti, samo jednostavna biologija otkrivena biologijom.
Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close. As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons, we see that its outer membrane is studded with microscopic pores. Pores like these conduct electrical current and are responsible for all the communication in the nervous system. But these pores here are special. They are coupled to light receptors similar to the ones in your eyes. Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor, the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on, and the neuron fires electrical impulses. Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA, we can achieve incredible precision. This is because, although each cell in our bodies contains the same set of genes, different mixes of genes get turned on and off in different cells. You can exploit this to make sure that only some neurons contain our light-activated pore and others don't. So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell in the upper-left corner does not respond to light because it lacks the light-activated pore. The approach works so well that we can write purely artificial messages directly to the brain. In this example, each electrical impulse, each deflection on the trace, is caused by a brief pulse of light. And the approach, of course, also works in moving, behaving animals.
Sada pogledajmo ove čudesne prijemnike izbliza. Ukoliko zumiramo jedan od ovih purpurnih neurona, videćemo da njegova spoljašnja membrana okovana mikroskopskim porama. Pore kao što su ove sakupljaju električnu struju i odgovorne su za ukupnu komunikaciju na nivou nervnog sistema. Ali ove pore ovde su specifične. One su spojene kako bi osvetlile receptore slično onima u vašim očima. Kada snop svetlosti pogodi receptor, pora se otvori i električna struja se uključi, i neuron ispaljuje električne impulse. I jer je svetlosno aktivirana pora kodirana u DNK, možemo postići neverovatnu preciznost. To je zbog toga što, iako svaka ćelija u našim telima sadrži iste setove gena, različiti miksovi gena se pale i gase u različitim ćelijama. Možete iskoristiti to kako biste se uverili da samo neki neuroni sadrže naše svetlosno aktivne pore dok druge ne sadrže. Tako na ovom crtežu, plavo bela ćelija u gornjem levom uglu ne reaguje na svetlost jer nema svetlosno aktivne pore. Ovaj pristup funkcioniše toliko dobro da možemo pisati čisto proizvoljne poruke direktno u mozak. U ovom primeru, svaki električni impuls, svako skretanje sa staze, uzrokovano je kratkim blokom svetlosti. A ovaj pristup takođe funkcioniše kod životinja u pokretu.
This is the first ever such experiment, sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's. It was done six or seven years ago by my then graduate student, Susana Lima. Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain expressed the light-activated pore. You're familiar with these cells because they are the ones that frustrate you when you try to swat the fly. They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air and fly away whenever you move your hand in position. And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect. The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them, but it can't actually take off because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates. Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly to a flash it could see, Susana did a simple but brutally effective experiment. She cut the heads off of her flies. These headless bodies can live for about a day, but they don't do much. They just stand around and groom excessively. So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity. (Laughter) Anyway, as you'll see in a moment, Susana was able to turn on the flight motor of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies and get some of the headless bodies to actually take off and fly away. They didn't get very far, obviously. Since we took these first steps, the field of optogenetics has exploded. And there are now hundreds of labs using these approaches.
Ovo je prvi ovakav eksperiment, nešto kao optički ekvivalent Galvanu. Urađen je pre šest ili sedam godina od strane jedne moje svršene studentkinje, Suzane Lime. Suzana je preuredila voćnu mušicu sa leve strane tako da samo dve od 200 000 ćelija u mozgu iskazuju svetlosno aktivne pore. Poznate su vam ove ćelije jer su to one koje vas frustriraju kada pokušavate da je ubijete. One su uvežbale refleks za bežanje koji omogućava mušici da odleti kad god pomerite svoju ruku. I možete videti ovde da udar svetlosti ima isti efekat. Životinja skoči, raširi krila, vibrira njima, ali ne može zapravo otići, jer je zaglavljena između dve staklene ploče. Kako bi bila sigurna da ovo nije reakcija mušice na svetlost koju može videti, Suzana je uradila jednostavan ali brutalno efektan eksperiment. Odsekla je glave mušicama. Ova bezglava tela mogu živeti od prilike jedan dan, ali ne rade mnogo šta. Ona samo stoje naokolo i preterano se doteruju. Tako izgleda da je jedina osobina koja opstaje i nakon odsecanja glave sujeta. (Smeh) U svakom slučaju, kao što ćete videti za trenutak, Suzana je uspela da uključi motor za letenje onoga što je ekvivalent kičmenoj moždini kod ovih mušica i učini da se neka od ovih obezglavljenih tela zaista pokrenu i odlete. Nisu daleko odmakli, očigledno. Od kako smo načinili ove prve korake, polje optogenetike je "eksplodiralo". I danas postoje stotine laboratorija koje koriste ove pristupe.
And we've come a long way since Galvani's and Susana's first successes in making animals twitch or jump. We can now actually interfere with their psychology in rather profound ways, as I'll show you in my last example, which is directed at a familiar question. Life is a string of choices creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next. We cope with this pressure by having brains, and within our brains, decision-making centers that I've called here the "Actor." The Actor implements a policy that takes into account the state of the environment and the context in which we operate. Our actions change the environment, or context, and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop.
I prešli smo dugačak put od Galvanovih i Suzaninih prvih uspeha vezanih za trzanje ili skakanje životinja. Sada možemo zaći u njihovu psihologiju na dublje načine kao što ću vam pokazati u svom poslednjem primeru koji je povezan sa nekim uobičajenim pitanjima. Život je niz izbora i vrši stalni pritisak na vas da odlučite šta da uradite sledeće. Borimo se sa ovim pritiskom tako što imamo mozgove, a unutar naših mozgova, imamo centre za donošenje odluka koje sam ovde nazvao "Operativac". Operativac sprovodi politiku koja uzima u obzir stanje okruženja i kontekst u kome deluje. Naše akcije menjaju sredinu, ili kontekst, i ove promene se tada vraćaju u središte odlučivanja.
Now to put some neurobiological meat on this abstract model, we constructed a simple one-dimensional world for our favorite subject, fruit flies. Each chamber in these two vertical stacks contains one fly. The left and the right halves of the chamber are filled with two different odors, and a security camera watches as the flies pace up and down between them. Here's some such CCTV footage. Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber where the two odor streams meet, it has to make a decision. It has to decide whether to turn around and stay in the same odor, or whether to cross the midline and try something new. These decisions are clearly a reflection of the Actor's policy. Now for an intelligent being like our fly, this policy is not written in stone but rather changes as the animal learns from experience. We can incorporate such an element of adaptive intelligence into our model by assuming that the fly's brain contains not only an Actor, but a different group of cells, a "Critic," that provides a running commentary on the Actor's choices. You can think of this nagging inner voice as sort of the brain's equivalent of the Catholic Church, if you're an Austrian like me, or the super-ego, if you're Freudian, or your mother, if you're Jewish.
Sada da stavimo malo neurobiološke mase na ovaj apstraktni model, konstruisaćemo jednostavan jednodimenzionalan svet za naše omiljene subjekte, voćne mušice. Svaka komora u ova dva vertikalna skladišta sadrže po jednu mušicu. Leva i desna polovina komora sadrže dve različite vrste mirisa, i sigurnosna kamera posmatra kako se mušice kreću između njih. Evo nekih snimaka tih kamera. Kad god bi mušica stigla do središta komore gde se susreću dve vrste mirisa, morala je da napravi izbor. Morala je da odluči da li da se okrene i ostane u istom mirisnom polju, ili da pređe središnju liniju i da proba nešto novo. Ove odluke su očito refleksija politike Operativca. E sada, za inteligentno biće kao što je naša mušica, politika nije nepromenljiva, već se menja pošto životinje uče iskustvom. Možemo uključiti taj element inteligencije prilagođavanja u naš model uz pretpostavku da mozak mušice sadrži ne samo Operativca, već i različite grupe ćelija, Kritiku, koja omogućava preispitivanje izbora koje pravi Opertivac. Možete razmišljati o ovom "džangrizavom" unutrašnjem glasu kao o vrsti moždanog ekvivalenta katoličke crkve, ukoliko ste iz Austrije kao ja, ili superega, ukoliko ste Frojdovac, ili vaše majke, ako ste Jevrej.
(Laughter)
(Smeh)
Now obviously, the Critic is a key ingredient in what makes us intelligent. So we set out to identify the cells in the fly's brain that played the role of the Critic. And the logic of our experiment was simple. We thought if we could use our optical remote control to activate the cells of the Critic, we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor into changing its policy. In other words, the fly should learn from mistakes that it thought it had made but, in reality, it had not made. So we bred flies whose brains were more or less randomly peppered with cells that were light addressable. And then we took these flies and allowed them to make choices. And whenever they made one of the two choices, chose one odor, in this case the blue one over the orange one, we switched on the lights. If the Critic was among the optically activated cells, the result of this intervention should be a change in policy. The fly should learn to avoid the optically reinforced odor.
Sada ozbiljno, kritika je ključni činilac koji nas čini inteligentnima. Tako smo krenuli da otkrijemo ćelije u mozgu mušice koje igraju ulogu Kritike. Logika našeg eksperimenta je bila jednostavna. Pomislili smo da ako bi bili u stanju da iskoristimo naš optički daljinski upravljač kako bismo aktivirali ćelije Kritike, mogli bismo, veštački, da isprovociramo Operativca da promeni politiku. Drugim rečima, mušica bi učila na greškama pomislila bi da je učinila nešto, što u stvarnosti nije. Tako smo svrstali mušice čiji su mozgovi bili manje ili više nasumično poprskani ćelijama - prijemnicima za svetlo. I tada smo uzeli te mušice i dozvolili im da naprave izbore. I kad god bi napravile jedan od dva izbora, izabrale jedan miris, u ovom slučaju ovaj plavi spram narandžastog, mi bismo promenili svetla. Da je kritika bila među optički aktiviranim ćelijama, rezultat ove intervencije bi trebalo da bude menjanje politike. Mušica bi naučila da izbegava optički pojačan miris.
Here's what happened in two instances: We're comparing two strains of flies, each of them having about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains, shown here in green on the left and on the right. What's common among these groups of cells is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine. But the identities of the individual dopamine-producing neurons are clearly largely different on the left and on the right. Optically activating these hundred or so cells into two strains of flies has dramatically different consequences. If you look first at the behavior of the fly on the right, you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber where the two odors meet, it marches straight through, as it did before. Its behavior is completely unchanged. But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different. Whenever it comes up to the midpoint, it pauses, it carefully scans the odor interface as if it was sniffing out its environment, and then it turns around. This means that the policy that the Actor implements now includes an instruction to avoid the odor that's in the right half of the chamber. This means that the Critic must have spoken in that animal, and that the Critic must be contained among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left, but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right.
Evo šta se dešava u dve situacije. Upoređujemo dve vrste mušica, svaka od njih ima oko 100 ćelija - prijemnika za svetlo u svojim mozgovima, što je prikazano zelenom bojom sa leve i desne strane. Ono što je zajedničko u ovim grupama ćelija jeste to da one sve produkuju neurotransmiter dopamin. Ali među samim neuronima koji proizvode dopamin postoje velike razlike, između ovih sa leve i ovih sa desne strane. Optički aktivirane ovih stotinu ćelija u dve vrste mušica, imaju dramatično različite posledice. Ako pogledate prvo ponašanje mušica na desnoj strani, možete videti da kad god stignu do središnje tačke komore gde se dva mirisa susreću, one prolaze pravo napred kao što su to činile i ranije. Njihovo ponašanje je u potpunosti nepromenjeno. Ali ponašanje mušica sa leve strane je različito. Kad god dođe do središnje tačke, zastane, pažljivo osmotri unutrašnjost tog dela mirisne komore, kao da njuši to okruženje, a potom se vraća nazad. Ovo znači da politika koju Operativac sada sprovodi uključuje i informaciju da izbegne miris koji je u desnoj strani komore. Ovo znači da je Kritika morala progovoriti u toj životinji, i da je Kritika sadržana unutar neurona koji produkuju dopamin sa leve strane, ali ne i među neuronima sa desne strane.
Through many such experiments, we were able to narrow down the identity of the Critic to just 12 cells. These 12 cells, as shown here in green, send the output to a brain structure called the "mushroom body," which is shown here in gray. We know from our formal model that the brain structure at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor. So this anatomy suggests that the mushroom bodies have something to do with action choice. Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies, this makes perfect sense. In fact, it makes so much sense that we can construct an electronic toy circuit that simulates the behavior of the fly. In this electronic toy circuit, the mushroom body neurons are symbolized by the vertical bank of blue LEDs in the center of the board. These LED's are wired to sensors that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air. Each odor activates a different combination of sensors, which in turn activates a different odor detector in the mushroom body. So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly, the Actor, can tell which odor is present simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up.
Kroz mnogo ovakvih eksperimenata, uspeli smo da suzimo identitet Kritike na samo 12 ćelija. Ovih 12 ćelija, kao što je pokazano zelenom bojom, su poslale izveštaj moždanoj strukturi koja se zove pečurkasto telo, i koja je ovde sive boje. Znamo iz našeg modela da je moždana struktura na kraju prijemnih komentara Kritike zapravo Operativac. Tako ova anatomija sugeriše da pečurkasta tela treba nešto da urade u akciji vršenja izbora. S obzirom na sve što znamo o pečurkastim telima, ovo savršeno ima smisla. Zapravo, ovo toliko ima smilsla, da možemo konstruisati električnu igračku koja simulira ponašanje mušice. U ovoj električnoj igrački neuroni pečurkastog tela su simbolizovani vertikalnim nagibom plave diode, na centru table. Ove diode su povezane sa senzorima koji detektuju prisustvo mirisnih molekula u vazduhu. Svaka vrsta mirisa aktivira različitu kombinaciju senzora, koji dalje aktiviraju različite detektore mirisa u pečurkastom telu. Tako pilot u pilotskoj kabini mušice, Operativac, može reći koji miris je prisutan jednostavnim pogledom na to koja je od plavih dioda upaljena.
What the Actor does with this information depends on its policy, which is stored in the strengths of the connection, between the odor detectors and the motors that power the fly's evasive actions. If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off and the fly will continue straight on its course. If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on and the fly will initiate a turn. Now consider a situation in which the motors stay off, the fly continues on its path and it suffers some painful consequence such as getting zapped. In a situation like this, we would expect the Critic to speak up and to tell the Actor to change its policy. We have created such a situation, artificially, by turning on the critic with a flash of light. That caused a strengthening of the connections between the currently active odor detector and the motors. So the next time the fly finds itself facing the same odor again, the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors and to trigger an evasive maneuver.
Šta će Operativac uraditi sa tom informacijom zavisi od njegove politike, koja počiva na čvrstini veza, između detektora mirisa i motora koji pokreću mušicu na odlučujuću akciju. Ukoliko je veza slaba, motori će ostati isključeni i mušica će nastaviti pravo na svom kursu. Ako je veza jaka, motori će se uključiti i mušica će se okrenuti. Sada razmotrite situaciju u kojoj motori ostaju isključeni, i mušica nastavi svojom stazom i doživi neke bolne posledice kao recimo da bude uhvaćena. U ovakvoj situaciji, možemo očekivati da Kritika progovori i kaže Operativcu da promeni politiku. Kreirali smo veštačku situaciju pokrenuvši Kritiku snopom svetlosti. To je dovelo do jačanja veza između trenutno aktivnog detektora mirisa i motora. I tako se sledeći put mušica našla suočena ponovo sa istim mirisom, veza je dovoljno jaka da pokrene motore i da pokrene odlučujuću akciju.
I don't know about you, but I find it exhilarating to see how vague psychological notions evaporate and give rise to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind, even if it's the mind of the fly. This is one piece of good news. The other piece of good news, for a scientist at least, is that much remains to be discovered. In the experiments I told you about, we have lifted the identity of the Critic, but we still have no idea how the Critic does its job. Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong without a teacher, or your mother, telling you, is a very hard problem. There are some ideas in computer science and in artificial intelligence as to how this might be done, but we still haven't solved a single example of how intelligent behavior springs from the physical interactions in living matter. I think we'll get there in the not too distant future.
Ne znam za vas, ali ja mislim da je prosvetljujuće kako maglovita psihološka zapažanja nestaju i ostavljaju prostor za fizička i mehanicistička objašnjenja uma, pa makar to bio i um mušice. Ovo je jedan deo dobrih vesti. Drugi deo dobrih vesti, makar i samo za naučnike, jeste to da je ostalo još mnogo toga da bude tek otkriveno. U eksperimentima o kojima sam vam govorio, uspeli smo da identifikujemo Kritiku, ali i dalje nemamo ideju kako ona radi svoj posao. Kada razmislite o tome, saznanje da ste pogrešili bez učitelja, ili majke da vam na to ukaže, veoma je velik problem. Postoje neke ideje u informatici i veštačkoj inteligenciji o tome kako je to moguće učiniti, ali još uvek nismo rešili ni jedan primer kako inteligentno ponašanje prelazi iz fizičke interakcije u živu materiju. Mislim da ćemo dobiti odgovore u bliskoj budućnosti.
Thank you.
Hvala vam.
(Applause)
(Aplauz)