Last year, I told you the story, in seven minutes, of Project Orion, which was this very implausible technology that technically could have worked, but it had this one-year political window where it could have happened. So it didn't happen. It was a dream that did not happen. This year I'm going to tell you the story of the birth of digital computing. This was a perfect introduction. And it's a story that did work. It did happen, and the machines are all around us. And it was a technology that was inevitable. If the people I'm going to tell you the story about, if they hadn't done it, somebody else would have. So, it was sort of the right idea at the right time.
Prošle godine sam vam 7 minuta pričao o Projektu Orion, koji je bio jako nemoguća tehnologija, koja je mogla biti tehnički izvediva, ali je imao samo jednogodišnju političku šansu da se ostvari, ali nije. To je bio neostvareni san. Ove godine ću vam govoriti o rođenju digitalnog računala. A ovo je bio savršen uvod. I to je priča koja je proradila. I dogodilo se, računala su svugdje oko nas. To je bila neizbježna tehnologija. Da je nisu ostvarili ljudi o kojima ću vam pričati -- netko drugi bi. Te je to bila prava ideja u pravo vrijeme.
This is Barricelli's universe. This is the universe we live in now. It's the universe in which these machines are now doing all these things, including changing biology. I'm starting the story with the first atomic bomb at Trinity, which was the Manhattan Project. It was a little bit like TED: it brought a whole lot of very smart people together. And three of the smartest people were Stan Ulam, Richard Feynman and John von Neumann. And it was Von Neumann who said, after the bomb, he was working on something much more important than bombs: he's thinking about computers. So, he wasn't only thinking about them; he built one. This is the machine he built.
Ovo je Barricellijev svemir. Ovo je svemir u kojem sad živimo. To je svemir u kojem ti strojevi danas rade sve te stvari, uključujući i biološke promjene. Početi ću priču s razvojem prve atomske bombe, takozvanom Projektu Mahattan. To je bilo pomalo poput TEDa: okupio je mnogo vrlo pametnih ljudi koji su zajedno surađivali. A troje najpametnijih su bili Stan Ulam, Richard Feynman i John von Neumann, i von Neumann je bio taj koji je nakon bombe rekao da počinje raditi na nečem puno važnijem: da razmišlja o računalima. Nije samo razmišljao o njima; napravio je jedno. Ovo je računalo koje je napravio.
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
He built this machine, and we had a beautiful demonstration of how this thing really works, with these little bits. And it's an idea that goes way back. The first person to really explain that was Thomas Hobbes, who, in 1651, explained how arithmetic and logic are the same thing, and if you want to do artificial thinking and artificial logic, you can do it all with arithmetic. He said you needed addition and subtraction. Leibniz, who came a little bit later -- this is 1679 -- showed that you didn't even need subtraction. You could do the whole thing with addition. Here, we have all the binary arithmetic and logic that drove the computer revolution. And Leibniz was the first person to really talk about building such a machine. He talked about doing it with marbles, having gates and what we now call shift registers, where you shift the gates, drop the marbles down the tracks. And that's what all these machines are doing, except, instead of doing it with marbles, they're doing it with electrons.
Izgradio je ovaj stroj, i imali smo prekrasnu demonstraciju o tome kako ovaj stroj stvarno radi, sa svim tim malim elementima. Ideja je prilično stara. Prva osoba koja je to stvarno objasnila je bio Thomas Hobbes, koji je 1651. godine objasnio kako su aritmetika i logika ista stvar, i ako želiš napraviti umjetnu inteligenciju i umjetnu logiku, možeš napraviti sve to samo s matematikom. Rekao je da samo trebaš oduzimanje i zbrajanje. Leibniz je nekoliko godina kasnije - 1679. - pokazao da niti ne trebaš oduzimanje. Sve to možeš napraviti samo sa zbrajanjem. I tako smo došli do binarne aritmetike i logike, koja je pokrenula računalnu revoluciju, i Leibniz je bio prva osoba koja je govorila o gradnji takvih strojeva. On je govorio o izgradnji uređaja uz pomoć kuglica, s logičkim vratima i onim što sad zovemo posmičnim registrima, te kad se otvore vrata, kuglice padaju na trake. To je u biti ono što i danas računala rade, osim što umjesto kuglica, koriste elektrone.
And then we jump to Von Neumann, 1945, when he sort of reinvents the whole same thing. And 1945, after the war, the electronics existed to actually try and build such a machine. So June 1945 -- actually, the bomb hasn't even been dropped yet -- and Von Neumann is putting together all the theory to actually build this thing, which also goes back to Turing, who, before that, gave the idea that you could do all this with a very brainless, little, finite state machine, just reading a tape in and reading a tape out. The other sort of genesis of what Von Neumann did was the difficulty of how you would predict the weather. Lewis Richardson saw how you could do this with a cellular array of people, giving them each a little chunk, and putting it together. Here, we have an electrical model illustrating a mind having a will, but capable of only two ideas.
I kada odemo do von Neumanna, 1945. , on ponovno iskorištava iste stvari. 1945., nakon rata, postojala je elektronika koja je omogućavala da se izgradi takav stroj. U lipnju 1945., dok atomska bomba još nije ni bačena, von Neumann je već postavio teorijsku osnovu za gradnju takvog stroja, a koja potječe još od Turinga, koji je, prije svega, iznio ideju da bi se sve ovo moglo napraviti, s vrlo neinteligentim strojem s definiranim stanjima, koji može samo čitati podatke s trake i ispisivati na traku. Druga grana razvoja kojeg je von Neumann pokrenuo je težina prognoziranja meteoroloških uvjeta. Lewis Richardson je predviđao kako bi se to moglo napraviti s grupom ljudi, od kojih bi svaki napravio jedan mali dio. Ovo je električni model koji ilustrira um koji ima volju, ali je sposoban samo za dvije ideje.
(Laughter)
(smijeh).
And that's really the simplest computer. It's basically why you need the qubit, because it only has two ideas.
I to je stvarno najjednostavnije računalo. I u osnovi sve što trebate je qbit, jer ima samo dvije ideje.
And you put lots of those together, you get the essentials of the modern computer: the arithmetic unit, the central control, the memory, the recording medium, the input and the output. But, there's one catch. This is the fatal -- you know, we saw it in starting these programs up. The instructions which govern this operation must be given in absolutely exhaustive detail. So, the programming has to be perfect, or it won't work.
a kad puno takvih stavite zajedno, dobivate osnovu modernih računala: aritmetičku jedinicu, središnju upravljačku jedinicu, memoriju, uređaj za pohranu podataka, te ulaznu i izlaznu jedinicu. Ali tu je jedan problem. To je fatalno -- i sami znate, vidjeli smo kod pokretanja tih programa. Instrukcije koje upravljaju tim operacijama moraju biti zadane do posljednjeg detalja. Tako da program mora biti besprijekoran, ili neće raditi.
If you look at the origins of this, the classic history sort of takes it all back to the ENIAC here. But actually, the machine I'm going to tell you about, the Institute for Advanced Study machine, which is way up there, really should be down there. So, I'm trying to revise history, and give some of these guys more credit than they've had. Such a computer would open up universes, which are, at the present, outside the range of any instruments. So it opens up a whole new world, and these people saw it. The guy who was supposed to build this machine was the guy in the middle, Vladimir Zworykin, from RCA. RCA, in probably one of the lousiest business decisions of all time, decided not to go into computers. But the first meetings, November 1945, were at RCA's offices. RCA started this whole thing off, and said, you know, televisions are the future, not computers.
Ako pogledate izvore toga, klasično porijeklo takvih stvari nas vraća sve do ENIAC-a. Ali u stvari računalo o kojem ću vam govoriti, Institute for Grand Study Machine, koji je tamo gore, trebao bi biti ovdje dolje. Zapravo pokušavam iznova napisati povijest, i dati ovim ljudima malo više zasluge nego što su dobili do sad. Takva računala bi otvorila prostranstva koja se nalaze izvan dometa svih instrumenata, te otvara sasvim nove svijetove, što su ovi ljudi i uvidjeli. Osoba koja je trebala izgraditi taj stroj je muškarac u sredini, Vladimir Zworykin, iz RCA. RCA je u najvjerojatnije najlošijoj poslovnoj odluci u povijesti odlučila da odustane od daljnjeg razvoja računala. Ali prvi sastanci, u studenom 1945., su bili u uredima RCA. RCA je započela sve ovo, i odlučila, već sami znate, da su televizori budućnost, a ne računala.
The essentials were all there -- all the things that make these machines run. Von Neumann, and a logician, and a mathematician from the army put this together. Then, they needed a place to build it. When RCA said no, that's when they decided to build it in Princeton, where Freeman works at the Institute. That's where I grew up as a kid. That's me, that's my sister Esther, who's talked to you before, so we both go back to the birth of this thing. That's Freeman, a long time ago, and that was me. And this is Von Neumann and Morgenstern, who wrote the "Theory of Games." All these forces came together there, in Princeton. Oppenheimer, who had built the bomb. The machine was actually used mainly for doing bomb calculations. And Julian Bigelow, who took Zworkykin's place as the engineer, to actually figure out, using electronics, how you would build this thing. The whole gang of people who came to work on this, and women in front, who actually did most of the coding, were the first programmers. These were the prototype geeks, the nerds. They didn't fit in at the Institute. This is a letter from the director, concerned about -- "especially unfair on the matter of sugar."
Svi elementi su već tada bili dostupni -- sve stvari koje su mogle pokrenuti računala. Von Neumann, i logičar, i matematičar iz vojske su odlučili sastaviti računalo. Jedino im je trebalo mjesto gdje će to sastaviti. Kad je RCA rekla ne, odlučili su sastaviti računalo u Princetonu, gdje je Freemen radio u Institutu. I to je mjesto gdje sam ja odrastao kao dijete. Ovo sam ja, ovo je moja sestra Esther, koja vam se obratila ranije, tako da se nas oboje sjećamo rođenja tog stroja. Ovo je Freeman, davno, a ovo sam ja. Ovo su Neumann i Morgenstern koji je napisao "Teoriju igara". I tako su se sve te snage skupile u Princetounu. Oppenheimer, osoba koje je izradila bombu. Uređaj je zapravo većinom služio za kalkulacije za bombu. I Julian Bigelow, koji je zamijenio Zworykina sa zadatkom da smisli kako će, korištenjem elektronike, izgraditi takav stroj. Ova grupa ljudi koji su radili na svemu tome, i ove žene ispred, koje su zapravo napravile najviše kodiranja, su bili prvi programeri. Oni su zapravo bili prvi štreberi /geekovi/. Nisu se uklapali u institut. Ovo je pismo od ravnatelja, zabrinutog zbog -- "pretjerane potrošnje šećera." /koji je u ratu bio racioniran/
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
You can read the text.
Možete pročitati tekst.
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
This is hackers getting in trouble for the first time.
Ovo su hackeri prvi put u problemima.
(Laughter).
(smijeh)
These were not theoretical physicists. They were real soldering-gun type guys, and they actually built this thing.
Oni nisu bili teoretski fizičari. Već tipovi s lemilicama koji su zapravo izgradili ovaj stroj.
And we take it for granted now, that each of these machines has billions of transistors, doing billions of cycles per second without failing. They were using vacuum tubes, very narrow, sloppy techniques to get actually binary behavior out of these radio vacuum tubes. They actually used 6J6, the common radio tube, because they found they were more reliable than the more expensive tubes. And what they did at the Institute was publish every step of the way. Reports were issued, so that this machine was cloned at 15 other places around the world. And it really was. It was the original microprocessor. All the computers now are copies of that machine. The memory was in cathode ray tubes -- a whole bunch of spots on the face of the tube -- very, very sensitive to electromagnetic disturbances. So, there's 40 of these tubes, like a V-40 engine running the memory.
Danas uzimamo zdravo za gotovo da svaki takav stroj, ima milijarde tranzistora, i radi milijarde operacija u sekundi bez greške. A oni su koristili vakuumske cijevi, jako nespretna tehnika, da od njih dobiju binarno ponašanje. Oni su zapravo koristili 6J6, često korištenu radijsku cijev, zato jer je bila puno pouzdanija od skupljih cijevi. I ono što su redovito radili, je bila objava svakog napravljenog koraka. Izvještaji su učestalo slani, tako da je ovakav stroj kloniran na još 15 mjesta na svijetu. I to je stvarno to. Ovo je bio originalni mikroprocesor. I sva današnja računala su kopija ovog stroja. Memorija je bila u katodnim cijevima - hrpa točkica na zaslonu cijevi, jako, jako osjetljiva na elektromagnetske smetnje. Ovo je 40 takvih cijevi, poput V-40 motora koji pokreće memoriju.
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
The input and the output was by teletype tape at first. This is a wire drive, using bicycle wheels. This is the archetype of the hard disk that's in your machine now. Then they switched to a magnetic drum. This is modifying IBM equipment, which is the origins of the whole data-processing industry, later at IBM. And this is the beginning of computer graphics. The "Graph'g-Beam Turn On." This next slide, that's the -- as far as I know -- the first digital bitmap display, 1954.
Ulazna i izlazna jedinica je na početku bila teleprinterska bušena vrpca. Ovo je prva jedinica sa žicama, koja koristi kotač od bicikla. To je prototip današnjeg hard diska. Kasnije su prešli na magnetski bubanj. Ovo je prilagođena IBM-ova oprema, koja je početak cijele industrije za pohranu podataka, kasnije u IBM-u. Ovo je početak računalne grafike. "Graph'g-Beam Turn On." Na slijedećem slajdu, je prema mom saznanju - prva digitalna bitmap slika, 1954.
So, Von Neumann was already off in a theoretical cloud, doing abstract sorts of studies of how you could build reliable machines out of unreliable components. Those guys drinking all the tea with sugar in it were writing in their logbooks, trying to get this thing to work, with all these 2,600 vacuum tubes that failed half the time. And that's what I've been doing, this last six months, is going through the logs. "Running time: two minutes. Input, output: 90 minutes." This includes a large amount of human error. So they are always trying to figure out, what's machine error? What's human error? What's code, what's hardware?
I tako je Von Neumann već bio u teoretskom oblaku radeći abstraktne studije o tome kako napraviti pouzdan stroj od nepouzdanih komponenti. Ovi ljudi su pili čaj s previše šećera i pisali o tome u svom dnevniku kako pokušavaju pokrenuti ovaj stroj sa svih 2600 vakuumski cijevi koje su se stalno kvarile. Posljednjih šest mjeseci ja sam čitano njihove dnevnike. "Vrijeme rada: dvije minute. Ulaz, izlaz: 90 minuta." Ovo je uključivalo veliku količinu ljudskih pogrešaka. I stalno su pokušavali shvatiti za koju je grešku krivo računalo, a za koju čovjek. Koja je greška u programu, a koja u sklopovima?
That's an engineer gazing at tube number 36, trying to figure out why the memory's not in focus. He had to focus the memory -- seems OK. So, he had to focus each tube just to get the memory up and running, let alone having, you know, software problems.
Ovo je inžinjer koji bulji u cijev broj 36, i pokušava shvatiti zašto memorija nije u fokusu. Morao je fokusirati memoriju -- čini se u redu. Tako je trebao fokusirati svaku cijev kako bi pokrenuo memoriju, i ujedno je imao softverske probleme.
"No use, went home." (Laughter)
"Nema koristi, otišao kući." (smijeh)
"Impossible to follow the damn thing, where's a directory?"
"Nemoguće je pratiti prokletu stvar, gdje su upute?"
So, already, they're complaining about the manuals: "before closing down in disgust ... "
I tako su se od samih početaka žalili na korisničke priručnike: "zatvaram uz gađenje"
"The General Arithmetic: Operating Logs." Burning lots of midnight oil.
Osnovna aritmetika -- operativni zapisi, uz puno neprospavanih noći.
"MANIAC," which became the acronym for the machine, Mathematical and Numerical Integrator and Calculator, "lost its memory."
MANIAC je postao akronim za taj stroj, Matematički i numerički integrator i kalkulator, "je izgubio svoju memoriju."
"MANIAC regained its memory, when the power went off." "Machine or human?"
"MANIAC je povratio memoriju kad je nestalo struje", "stroj ili čovjek?"
"Aha!" So, they figured out it's a code problem.
"Aha!", i tako su shvatili: problem je u kodu:
"Found trouble in code, I hope."
"Našao problem u kodu, bar se nadam"
"Code error, machine not guilty."
"Greška u kodu, stroj nije kriv"
"Damn it, I can be just as stubborn as this thing."
"K vragu, i ja mogu biti tvrdoglav kao i ovaj stroj"
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
"And the dawn came." So they ran all night. Twenty-four hours a day, this thing was running, mainly running bomb calculations.
"Već je zora vani", i tako su radili cijele noći. 24 sata na dana dok je stroj radio, većinom radeći kalkulacije za bombe.
"Everything up to this point is wasted time." "What's the use? Good night."
"Sve do sad je bio gubitak vremena", "Koja je korist od ovog? Laku noć"
"Master control off. The hell with it. Way off." (Laughter)
"Glavna kontrola je isključena. K vragu s njom. " (smijeh)
"Something's wrong with the air conditioner -- smell of burning V-belts in the air."
"Nešto ne štima s klima uređajem -- smrdi po spaljenoj plastici"
"A short -- do not turn the machine on."
"Ukratko -- nemojte paliti stroj"
"IBM machine putting a tar-like substance on the cards. The tar is from the roof." So they really were working under tough conditions.
"IBM je koristio supstancu poput katrana na karticama. Katran je s krova" Zaista su radili pod vrlo teškim uvjetima.
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
Here, "A mouse has climbed into the blower behind the regulator rack, set blower to vibrating. Result: no more mouse."
Ovdje, "Miš se popeo u ventilaciju iza regulatora, ventilator se počeo tresti. Rezultat: nema više miša."
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
"Here lies mouse. Born: ?. Died: 4:50 a.m., May 1953."
"Ovdje leži miš. Rođen? Preminuo 4:50, Svibanj 1953."
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
There's an inside joke someone has penciled in: "Here lies Marston Mouse." If you're a mathematician, you get that, because Marston was a mathematician who objected to the computer being there.
Ovdje je netko dopisao olovkom: "Ovdje leži Marstonov miš" Ako ste matematičar, bit će vam jasno, jer je Marston bio matematičar koji bi se protivio ovom računalu.
"Picked a lightning bug off the drum." "Running at two kilocycles." That's two thousand cycles per second -- "yes, I'm chicken" -- so two kilocycles was slow speed. The high speed was 16 kilocycles. I don't know if you remember a Mac that was 16 Megahertz, that's slow speed.
"Pokupio krijesnicu sa bubnja, radi na dva kilociklusa" To su dvije tisuće ciklusa u sekundi -- "da, kukavica sam" -- tako da su dva kilociklusa bili spora brzina. Brz rad je bio 16 kilociklusa. Ne znam dali se sjećate da je prvi Mac bio na 16 megaherca. To je bilo sporo.
"I have now duplicated both results. How will I know which is right, assuming one result is correct? This now is the third different output. I know when I'm licked."
"Za sada sam ponovio oba rezultata. Kako ću znati koji je ispravan, ako pretpostavljam da je jedan rezultat točan. Ovo je sad treći različiti rezultat. Znam kad sam poražen."
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
"We've duplicated errors before."
"Dobivali smo iste greške već ranije"
"Machine run, fine. Code isn't."
"Stroj dobro radi. Kod ne."
"Only happens when the machine is running."
"Ovo se deševa samo dok stroj radi"
And sometimes things are okay. "Machine a thing of beauty, and a joy forever." "Perfect running."
A ponekad su stvari dobre. "Stroj je spoj ljepote i vječnog veselja." "Savršeno radi."
"Parting thought: when there's bigger and better errors, we'll have them."
"Zabavna misao: kad su veće i bolje greške, sve ih imamo."
So, nobody was supposed to know they were actually designing bombs. They're designing hydrogen bombs. But someone in the logbook, late one night, finally drew a bomb. So, that was the result. It was Mike, the first thermonuclear bomb, in 1952. That was designed on that machine, in the woods behind the Institute.
Nitko nije trebao znati da oni ustvari dizajniraju bombe. Oni dizajniraju hidrogenske bombe. Ali je netko napokon u dnevnik, kasno jedne noći, konačno nacrtao bombu. I to je bio rezultat. To je bio Mike, prva termonuklearna bomba, 1952. Koja je bila dizajnirana na tom stroju, u šumi iza instituta.
So Von Neumann invited a whole gang of weirdos from all over the world to work on all these problems. Barricelli, he came to do what we now call, really, artificial life, trying to see if, in this artificial universe -- he was a viral-geneticist, way, way, way ahead of his time. He's still ahead of some of the stuff that's being done now. Trying to start an artificial genetic system running in the computer. Began -- his universe started March 3, '53. So it's almost exactly -- it's 50 years ago next Tuesday, I guess. And he saw everything in terms of -- he could read the binary code straight off the machine. He had a wonderful rapport. Other people couldn't get the machine running. It always worked for him. Even errors were duplicated.
I tako je von Neumann pozvao grupu čudaka iz svih krajeva svijeta da rade na tim problemima. Baricelli je počeo raditi na onome što danas zove umjetni život, pokušavajući vidjeti kako, u ovom umjetnom svemiru -- on je bio genetičar -- daleko, daleko ispred svojeg vremena. I danas je još ispred stvari koje se sad rade. Pokušavajući pokrenuti umjetni genetički sustav u računalu. Njegov svemir je stvoren 3. svibnja '53. godine. Znači prošlo je točno -- 50 godina. I vidio je sve u pojmovima -- Čitao je binarni kod izravno iz stroja. Imao je prekrasan odnos sa strojem. Drugi ljudi nisu mogli niti pokrenuti mašinu. Za njega je uvijek radila. Čak su se i greške ponavljale.
(Laughter)
(smijeh)
"Dr. Barricelli claims machine is wrong, code is right."
"Dr. Barricelli tvrdi da je mašina u krivu, kod je dobar."
So he designed this universe, and ran it. When the bomb people went home, he was allowed in there. He would run that thing all night long, running these things, if anybody remembers Stephen Wolfram, who reinvented this stuff. And he published it. It wasn't locked up and disappeared. It was published in the literature. "If it's that easy to create living organisms, why not create a few yourself?" So, he decided to give it a try, to start this artificial biology going in the machines. And he found all these, sort of -- it was like a naturalist coming in and looking at this tiny, 5,000-byte universe, and seeing all these things happening that we see in the outside world, in biology. This is some of the generations of his universe. But they're just going to stay numbers; they're not going to become organisms. They have to have something. You have a genotype and you have to have a phenotype. They have to go out and do something. And he started doing that, started giving these little numerical organisms things they could play with -- playing chess with other machines and so on. And they did start to evolve. And he went around the country after that. Every time there was a new, fast machine, he started using it, and saw exactly what's happening now. That the programs, instead of being turned off -- when you quit the program, you'd keep running and, basically, all the sorts of things like Windows is doing, running as a multi-cellular organism on many machines, he envisioned all that happening. And he saw that evolution itself was an intelligent process. It wasn't any sort of creator intelligence, but the thing itself was a giant parallel computation that would have some intelligence. And he went out of his way to say that he was not saying this was lifelike, or a new kind of life. It just was another version of the same thing happening. And there's really no difference between what he was doing in the computer and what nature did billions of years ago. And could you do it again now?
I tako je dizajnirao svemir, i pokrenuo ga. Kad su ljudi koji su razvijali bombu otišli doma, njemu su dozvolili da ostane. Pokretao je tu stvar cijelu noć, pokrečući programe. Ako se neko sjeća Stephena Wolframa, on je ponovo otkrio te stvari. I objavio ih. Nije bilo zaključano, i nije nestalo. Objavljeno je u literaturi. "Ako je tako lagano stvoriti žive organizme, zašto ih ne stvorimo sami? " I tako je odlučio pokušati, započeti umjetnu biologiju unutar tih strojeva. I pronašao je sve ovo, poput -- Bilo je kao da prirodoslovac dolazi i gleda u ovaj mali, 5,000-bajtni svemir, i gleda sve te stvari koje se događaju koje vidimo u vanjskom svijetu, u biologiji. To su neke od generacija u njegovom svemiru. Ali oni će samo ostati brojevi; neće postati organizmi. Moraju imati nešto. Imate genotip i morate imati fenotip. Moraju ići van i raditi nešto. I on je počeo raditi to, počeo je davati tim malim numeričkim organizmima stvar s kojima bi se mogle igrati, igrati šah s drugim strojevima i slično. I počeli su evoluirati. I krenuo je s tim po cijeloj zemlji. Svaki put kad se pojavio novi, brži stroj, počeo ga je koristiti, i predvidio je ono što se danas događa: da programi, umjesto da se ugase -- kad zatvorite program, nastave raditi i, u osnovi, stvari poput onih koje Windowsi rade -- pokreću se kao višestanični organizam na više strojeva -- predvidio je sve što će se događati. I shvatio je da je sama evolucij inteligentni proces. Evolucija nije rezultat inteligencije stvoritelja, već je sama po sebi divovska paralelna računalna operacija koja ima neku vrstu inteligencije. I on je počeo pričati o tome da to nije životoliko, ili nova vrsta života; to je bila samo druga verzija iste stvari. I da stvarno nema neke razlike između onoga što radi računalo i što je radila priroda prije nekoliko milijardi godina. I možemo li to napraviti ponovo?
So, when I went into these archives looking at this stuff, lo and behold, the archivist came up one day, saying, "I think we found another box that had been thrown out." And it was his universe on punch cards. So there it is, 50 years later, sitting there -- sort of suspended animation. That's the instructions for running -- this is actually the source code for one of those universes, with a note from the engineers saying they're having some problems. "There must be something about this code that you haven't explained yet." And I think that's really the truth. We still don't understand how these very simple instructions can lead to increasing complexity. What's the dividing line between when that is lifelike and when it really is alive? These cards, now, thanks to me showing up, are being saved. And the question is, should we run them or not? You know, could we get them running? Do you want to let it loose on the Internet? These machines would think they -- these organisms, if they came back to life now -- whether they've died and gone to heaven, there's a universe. My laptop is 10 thousand million times the size of the universe that they lived in when Barricelli quit the project.
I dok sam počeo pretraživati o ovome u arhivama, arhivist je došao jedan dan i rekao: "Mislim da sam našao kutiju koja je trebala biti bačena" I to je bio njegov svemir na bušenim karticama. I tu je bila, 50 godina kasnije. Poput hiberniranog života. To su instrukcije za pokretanje -- zapravo to je bio izvorni kod za jedan od tih svemira s bilješkom jednog od inžinjera na kojoj piše da imaju neke probleme. "Mora biti nešto u tom kodu što još niste objasnili" I mislim da je to stvarno istina. Mi još ne razumijemo kako ove vrlo jednostavne instrukcije mogu voditi do tako povećane složenosti. Gdje je linija koja razdvaja između onoga što izgleda živo i što je stvarno živo? Ove bušene kartice su sada, zahvaljujući meni, spašene. I pitanje je, da li bi ih trebali pokretati ili ne ? Znate, možemo li ih pokreniti? Da li ih želimo pustiti na Internet? Ovi strojevi bi mislili -- ti organizmi, ako oni sad ožive, jesu li umrli i otišli u raj, tamo je svemir -- moj laptop je 10 tisuća milijuna puta velićine svemira u kojem su živjeli kad je Barricelli otišao iz projekta.
He was thinking far ahead, to how this would really grow into a new kind of life. And that's what's happening! When Juan Enriquez told us about these 12 trillion bits being transferred back and forth, of all this genomics data going to the proteomics lab, that's what Barricelli imagined: that this digital code in these machines is actually starting to code -- it already is coding from nucleic acids. We've been doing that since, you know, since we started PCR and synthesizing small strings of DNA. And real soon, we're actually going to be synthesizing the proteins, and, like Steve showed us, that just opens an entirely new world.
On je mislio daleko unaprijed, o tome kako će to stvarno prerasti u novu vrstu života. I to je ono što se događa! Kada nam je Juan Enriquez govorio o tih 12 tisuća milijardi bita koje se prenose natrag i naprijed, svi ti genomski podaci u laboratoriju za proteine, to je ono što je Barricelli zamišljao: da taj digitalni kod u tim strojevima zapravo je početak kodiranja -- već djelomično kodira nukleinske kiseline. To smo radili, već znate, od kad smo pokrenuli PCR i sintetizirali male nizove DNK. I vrlo uskoro ćemo zapravo početi sintetizirati proteine, i kako nam je Steve pokazao, to zapravo otvara cijeli jedan novi svijet.
It's a world that Von Neumann himself envisioned. This was published after he died: his sort of unfinished notes on self-reproducing machines, what it takes to get the machines sort of jump-started to where they begin to reproduce. It took really three people: Barricelli had the concept of the code as a living thing; Von Neumann saw how you could build the machines -- that now, last count, four million of these Von Neumann machines is built every 24 hours; and Julian Bigelow, who died 10 days ago -- this is John Markoff's obituary for him -- he was the important missing link, the engineer who came in and knew how to put those vacuum tubes together and make it work. And all our computers have, inside them, the copies of the architecture that he had to just design one day, sort of on pencil and paper. And we owe a tremendous credit to that. And he explained, in a very generous way, the spirit that brought all these different people to the Institute for Advanced Study in the '40s to do this project, and make it freely available with no patents, no restrictions, no intellectual property disputes to the rest of the world.
To je svijet kojeg je von Neumann zamislio. To je bilo objavljeno nakon njegove smrti: njegove nedovršene bilješke o samoreplicirajućim strojevima. Što treba učiniti da te strojeve dovedemo do točke kad se počnu sami razmnožavati. Zapravo je trebalo troje ljudi: Baricelli koji je imao ideju programskog koda kao žive stvari. Von Neumann koji je imao viziju kako izgraditi te strojeve. I danas se, prema posljednjim podacima, četiri milijuna tih von Neumannovih strojeva proizvede svakih 24 sata. I Julian Bigelow, koji je umro prije 10 dana -- ovo je osmrtnica Johna Markoffova za njega -- on je bio važna karika koja je nedostajala, inžinjer koji im se pridružio i znao kako spojiti te vakuumske cijevi da rade zajedno. I sva naša računala imaju, u sebi, kopije arhitekture koju je on dizajnirao jednom, olovkom na papiru. I dugujemo mu ogromnu zahvalu zbog toga. On je objasnio, na vrlo darežljiv način, duh koje je doveo sve ove različite ljude u Institut za napredna istraživanja u 40-im godinama da rade na ovom projektu, i stave rezultate na raspolaganje besplatno svima, bez patenata i ograničenja, bez prava na intelektualno vlasništvo cijelom svijetu.
That's the last entry in the logbook when the machine was shut down, July 1958. And it's Julian Bigelow who was running it until midnight when the machine was officially turned off. And that's the end.
I ovo je zadnji unos u dnevnik prije nego što je stroj isključen, u lipnju 1958. I Julian Bigelow je taj koji je pokretao računalo sve do ponoći kad je stroj i službeno isključen. I to je kraj.
Thank you very much.
Puno hvala.
(Applause)
(pljesak)