I was born in Den Bosch, where the painter Hieronymus Bosch named himself after. And I've always been very fond of this painter who lived and worked in the 15th century. And what is interesting about him in relation to morality is that he lived at a time where religion's influence was waning, and he was sort of wondering, I think, what would happen with society if there was no religion or if there was less religion. And so he painted this famous painting, "The Garden of Earthly Delights," which some have interpreted as being humanity before the Fall, or being humanity without any Fall at all. And so it makes you wonder, what would happen if we hadn't tasted the fruit of knowledge, so to speak, and what kind of morality would we have.
Narodil som sa v Den Bosch, meste, po ktorom sa pomenoval maliar Hieronymus Bosch. A tak som mal vždy rád tohto maliara, ktorý žil a pracoval v 15. storočí. Zaujímavé na ňom vo vzťahu k morálke je to, že žil v čase, keď vplyv cirkvi oslaboval, a tak sa asi zamýšľal nad tým, čo by sa stalo so spoločnosťou, ak by neexistovalo náboženstvo alebo ak by ho bolo menej. Namaľoval tento slávny obraz, "Záhrada pozemských rozkoší," ktorý niektorí interpretovali ako ľudstvo pred prvým hriechom alebo ako ľudstvo bez prvého hriechu vôbec. A to nás privádza k otázke, čo by sa stalo, ak by sme neboli ochutnali ovocie zo stromu poznania, a akú by sme mali morálku?
Much later, as a student, I went to a very different garden, a zoological garden in Arnhem where we keep chimpanzees. This is me at an early age with a baby chimpanzee.
Omnoho neskôr som ako študent navštívil celkom inú záhradu, zoologickú záhradu v Arnheme, kde máme šimpanzy. Toto som ja za mlada, ako držím mláďa šimpanza.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
And I discovered there that the chimpanzees are very power-hungry and wrote a book about it. And at that time the focus in a lot of animal research was on aggression and competition. I painted a whole picture of the animal kingdom and humanity included, was that deep down we are competitors, we are aggressive, we are all out for our own profit, basically. This is the launch of my book. I'm not sure how well the chimpanzees read it, but they surely seemed interested in the book.
A tam som zistil, že šimpanzy veľmi prahnú po moci a napísal som o tom knihu. V tom čase sa veľa výskumov zvierat sústredilo na agresivitu a súperenie. Vytvoril som si takú predstavu o celej zvieracej ríši, vrátane ľudí, že hlboko vo vnútri sme všetci súperi, sme agresívni, všetkým nám v podstate ide len o vlastný prospech. Toto je uvedenie mojej knihy. Nie som si istý, ako veľmi knihu šimpanzy čítali, ale rozhodne sa zdalo, že ich zaujala.
(Laughter)
V priebehu
Now in the process of doing all this work on power and dominance and aggression and so on, I discovered that chimpanzees reconcile after fights. And so what you see here is two males who have had a fight. They ended up in a tree, and one of them holds out a hand to the other. And about a second after I took the picture, they came together in the fork of the tree and kissed and embraced each other.
výskumu moci, dominancie agresivity a tak ďalej, som zistil, že šimpanzy sa po bojoch uzmierujú. A tu vidíte dvoch samcov, ktorí bojovali. Potom sa ocitli na strome a jeden z nich naťahuje ruku k druhému. A asi sekundu po tom, čo som urobil túto fotku, prišli k sebe, pobozkali sa a objali. Toto je veľmi zaujímavé,
And this is very interesting because at the time, everything was about competition and aggression, so it wouldn't make any sense. The only thing that matters is that you win or you lose. But why reconcile after a fight? That doesn't make any sense. This is the way bonobos do it. Bonobos do everything with sex. And so they also reconcile with sex. But the principle is exactly the same. The principle is that you have a valuable relationship that is damaged by conflict, so you need to do something about it. So my whole picture of the animal kingdom, and including humans also, started to change at that time.
pretože v tej dobe bolo všetko o súperení a agresivite, a tak to nedávalo žiaden zmysel. Jediné na čom záleží je, či vyhráte alebo prehráte. Ale prečo by ste sa po boji uzmierovali? To nedáva žiaden zmysel. Šimpanzy bonobo to riešia takto. Bonobo robia všetko sexom. A tak sa aj uzmierujú sexom. Ale princíp je presne ten istý. Princíp je ten, že máte cenný vzťah, ktorý je konfliktom poškodený, takže s tým musíte niečo urobiť. Takže celá moja predstava o zvieracej ríši, a to vrátane ľudí, sa v tej dobe začala meniť.
So we have this image in political science, economics, the humanities, the philosophy for that matter, that man is a wolf to man. And so deep down, our nature is actually nasty. I think it's a very unfair image for the wolf. The wolf is, after all, a very cooperative animal. And that's why many of you have a dog at home, which has all these characteristics also. And it's really unfair to humanity, because humanity is actually much more cooperative and empathic than given credit for. So I started getting interested in those issues and studying that in other animals.
Máme takú predstavu -- v politológii, ekonómii, humanitných vedách, vlastne aj vo filozofii -- že človek je človeku vlkom. A že hlboko vo vnútri je naša povaha v skutočnosti nevraživá. Myslím, že táto predstava je veľmi nespravodlivá voči vlkovi. Vlk je, napokon, veľmi kooperatívne zviera. Preto mnohí z vás majú doma psa, ktorý má tiež všetky tieto vlastnosti. A je to naozaj nespravodlivé voči ľudstvu, pretože ľudia sú v skutočnosti omnoho kooperatívnejší a empatickejší než sa im pripisuje. Takže som sa začal o tieto veci zaujímať a skúmať ich u ďalších zvierat.
So these are the pillars of morality. If you ask anyone, "What is morality based on?" these are the two factors that always come out. One is reciprocity, and associated with it is a sense of justice and a sense of fairness. And the other one is empathy and compassion. And human morality is more than this, but if you would remove these two pillars, there would be not much remaining, I think. So they're absolutely essential.
Toto sú piliere morálky. Ak sa niekoho spýtate, "Na čom je založená morálka?" toto sú dve veci, ktoré sa tam vždy objavia. Jedna je vzájomnosť a s ňou je spojený zmysel pre spravodlivosť a zmysel pre čestnosť. A tou druhou je empatia a súcit. Ľudská morálka je viac ako toto, ale ak by ste odobrali tieto dva piliere, myslím, že by toho veľa nezostalo. A preto sú absolútne nevyhnutné.
So let me give you a few examples here. This is a very old video from the Yerkes Primate Center, where they trained chimpanzees to cooperate. So this is already about a hundred years ago that we were doing experiments on cooperation. What you have here is two young chimpanzees who have a box, and the box is too heavy for one chimp to pull in. And of course, there's food on the box. Otherwise they wouldn't be pulling so hard. And so they're bringing in the box. And you can see that they're synchronized. You can see that they work together, they pull at the same moment. It's already a big advance over many other animals who wouldn't be able to do that. Now you're going to get a more interesting picture, because now one of the two chimps has been fed. So one of the two is not really interested in the task anymore.
Dám vám pár príkladov. Toto je veľmi staré video z Yerkes Primate Center, kde trénujú šimpanzy spolupracovať. Už pred 100 sto rokmi sme robili experimenty so spoluprácou. Tu máte dvoch mladých šimpanzov a debničku. Pričom debnička je príliš ťažká na to, aby si ju pritiahol jeden šimpanz. A pravdaže, na debničke je jedlo. Inak by sa tak veľmi nesnažili. Prisúvajú si debnu. A vidíte, že sú zosynchronizovaní. Vidíte, že spolupracujú, ťahajú debnu v rovnakú chvíľu. To je už veľký pokrok oproti iným zvieratám, ktoré by toho neboli schopné. A teraz uvidíte niečo zaujímavejšie, pretože teraz je jeden zo šimpanzov nakŕmený. Takže jeden z nich už o úlohu nemá taký záujem.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
[- and sometimes appears to convey its wishes and meanings by gestures.] Now look at what happens at the very end of this.
Teraz sledujte, čo sa stane na konci.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
He takes basically everything.
Vezme si v podstate všetko.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
There are two interesting parts about this. One is that the chimp on the right has a full understanding he needs the partner -- so a full understanding of the need for cooperation. The second one is that the partner is willing to work even though he's not interested in the food. Why would that be? Well, that probably has to do with reciprocity. There's actually a lot of evidence in primates and other animals that they return favors. He will get a return favor at some point in the future. And so that's how this all operates.
Na tom sú dve zaujímavé veci. Jedna z nich je, že šimpanz napravo plne chápe, že potrebuje partnera - takže plné chápanie potreby spolupráce. Druhá je, že partner je ochotný pracovať, hoci nemá záujem o jedlo. Prečo tomu tak je? Nuž, pravdepodobne to má niečo spoločné so vzájomnosťou. Dokonca je množstvo dôkazov o tom, že primáty a iné zvieratá oplácajú láskavosti. Takže on si nechá láskavosť oplatiť niekedy v budúcnosti. A takto to všetko funguje.
We do the same task with elephants. Now, it's very dangerous to work with elephants. Another problem with elephants is that you cannot make an apparatus that is too heavy for a single elephant. Now you can probably make it, but it's going to be a pretty clumsy apparatus, I think. And so what we did in that case -- we do these studies in Thailand for Josh Plotnik -- is we have an apparatus around which there is a rope, a single rope. And if you pull on this side of the rope, the rope disappears on the other side. So two elephants need to pick it up at exactly the same time, and pull. Otherwise nothing is going to happen and the rope disappears.
Rovnaké úlohy robíme so slonmi. No pracovať so slonmi je veľmi nebezpečné. Ďalší problém so slonmi je ten, že nemôžete vyrobiť zariadenie, ktoré by bolo pre jedného slona príliš ťažké. Teda, pravdepodobne ho môžete vyrobiť, ale myslím, že to bude dosť chatrné zariadenie. A tak čo sme spravili v tom prípade - tieto štúdie robíme v Thajsku pre Josha Plotnika - máme zariadenie okolo ktorého je lano, jedno lano. A ak zatiahnete za jeden koniec lana, lano na druhej strane zmizne. Takže je potrebné, aby ho dva slony zdvihli presne v tú istú chvíľu a ťahali. Inak sa nič nestane a lano zmizne.
The first tape you're going to see is two elephants who are released together arrive at the apparatus. The apparatus is on the left, with food on it. And so they come together, they arrive together, they pick it up together, and they pull together. So it's actually fairly simple for them. There they are. So that's how they bring it in. But now we're going to make it more difficult. Because the purpose of this experiment is to see how well they understand cooperation. Do they understand that as well as the chimps, for example?
A na prvej páske, ktorú uvidíte, sú dva slony, ktoré sú vypustené spolu a prídu k zariadeniu. Zariadenie je naľavo a je na ňom jedlo. Takže sú spolu vypustené, spolu k nemu prídu, spolu zdvihnú lano a spolu ťahajú. Vlastne je to pre nich celkom jednoduché. Tu sú. A takto si to pritiahnu. Ale teraz to trochu sťažíme. Pretože účelom tohto experimentu je zistiť, ako dobre rozumejú spolupráci. Rozumejú jej tak dobre ako napríklad šimpanzy?
What we do in the next step is we release one elephant before the other and that elephant needs to be smart enough to stay there and wait and not pull at the rope -- because if he pulls at the rope, it disappears and the whole test is over. Now this elephant does something illegal that we did not teach it. But it shows the understanding he has, because he puts his big foot on the rope, stands on the rope and waits there for the other, and then the other is going to do all the work for him. So it's what we call freeloading.
A tak v druhom kroku vypustíme jedného slona skôr ako druhého a ten slon musí byť dosť múdry na to, aby tam stál a čakal a neťahal za lano - pretože ak potiahne za lano, ono zmizne a celý test skončil. No ten slon urobí niečo proti predpisom, čo sme ho nenaučili. Ale svedčí to o chápaní, ktoré má, pretože svoju veľkú nohu položí na lano, stojí na lane a čaká na druhého a potom ten druhý za neho urobí celú prácu. Takže tomu hovoríme priživovanie sa.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
But it shows the intelligence that the elephants have. They developed several of these alternative techniques that we did not approve of, necessarily.
Ale ukazuje to inteligenciu slonov. Vyvinuli niekoľko alternatívnych techník, ktoré sme celkom neschvaľovali.
(Laughter)
Takže teraz prichádza druhý slon
So the other elephant is now coming ... and is going to pull it in. Now look at the other; it doesn't forget to eat, of course.
a pritiahne si to. Teraz si všimnite toho druhého. Nezabudne sa najesť, pravdaže.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
This was the cooperation and reciprocity part.
Toto bola spolupráca, časť o vzájomnosti.
Now something on empathy. Empathy is my main topic at the moment, of research. And empathy has two qualities: One is the understanding part of it. This is just a regular definition: the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. And the emotional part. Empathy has basically two channels: One is the body channel, If you talk with a sad person, you're going to adopt a sad expression and a sad posture, and before you know it, you feel sad. And that's sort of the body channel of emotional empathy, which many animals have. Your average dog has that also. That's why people keep mammals in the home and not turtles or snakes or something like that, who don't have that kind of empathy. And then there's a cognitive channel, which is more that you can take the perspective of somebody else. And that's more limited. Very few animals, I think elephants and apes, can do that kind of thing.
Teraz niečo k empatii. Empatia je teraz mojou hlavnou témou výskumu. A empatia má v podstate dve vlastnosti. Jedna je pochopenie. Toto je bežná definícia: schopnosť pochopiť a zdieľať pocity druhého. A druhá časť emocionálna. Empatia má v podstate dva kanály. Jeden je telo. Ak sa rozprávate so smutnou osobou, prevezmete smutný výraz a smutný postoj, a skôr než ste si toho vedomí, cítite sa smutne. A to je telesný kanál emocionálnej empatie, ktorý mnoho zvierat má. Váš priemerný pes ho má tiež. Preto vlastne ľudia držia doma cicavce a nie korytnačky alebo hady a podobne, ktoré nemajú taký druh empatie. A potom je tam kognitívny kanál, ktorý je o tom, že dokážete prijať perspektívu niekoho iného. A to je viac obmedzené. Patrí sem pár zvierat - myslím, že slony a opice to dokážu - ale inak je veľmi málo zvierat, ktoré to vedia.
So synchronization, which is part of that whole empathy mechanism, is a very old one in the animal kingdom. In humans, of course, we can study that with yawn contagion. Humans yawn when others yawn. And it's related to empathy. It activates the same areas in the brain. Also, we know that people who have a lot of yawn contagion are highly empathic. People who have problems with empathy, such as autistic children, they don't have yawn contagion. So it is connected.
Takže synchronizácia, ktorá je súčasťou celého mechanizmu empatie je vo zvieracej ríši veľmi stará. A u ľudí ju môžeme sledovať pri nákazlivosti zívania. Ľudia zívajú, keď iní zívajú. A to súvisí s empatiou. Aktivuje to rovnaké oblasti v mozgu. Taktiež vieme, že ľudia, ktorí majú silný reflex zívania, sú veľmi empatickí. Ľudia, ktorí majú problém s empatiou, tak ako autistické deti, pre nich nie je zívanie nákazlivé. Takže je to prepojené.
And we study that in our chimpanzees by presenting them with an animated head. So that's what you see on the upper-left, an animated head that yawns. And there's a chimpanzee watching, an actual real chimpanzee watching a computer screen on which we play these animations.
U šimpanzov to skúmame tak, že im ukazujeme animované hlavy. To vidíte hore vľavo, animovanú hlavu, ktorá zíva. A tam je šimpanz, ktorý sa pozerá, ozajstný živý šimpanz sleduje monitor, na ktorom prehrávame animáciu.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
So yawn contagion that you're probably all familiar with -- and maybe you're going to start yawning soon now -- is something that we share with other animals. And that's related to that whole body channel of synchronization that underlies empathy, and that is universal in the mammals, basically.
Takže nákazlivé zívanie nám je všetkým známe - a možno za chvíľu začnete všetci zívať - je to niečo, čo máme spoločné s ďalšími zvieratami. A to súvisí s celým tým telesným kanálom synchronizácie, ktorý je základom empatie a ktorý je obecne u cicavcov.
We also study more complex expressions -- This is consolation. This is a male chimpanzee who has lost a fight and he's screaming, and a juvenile comes over and puts an arm around him and calms him down. That's consolation. It's very similar to human consolation. And consolation behavior --
Skúmame aj zložitejšie výrazy. Toto je útecha. Toto je samec šimpanza, ktorý prehral boj a vrieska, a príde mláďa a dá okolo neho ruku a upokojí ho. To je útecha. Je to veľmi podobné ľudskej úteche. A prejav útechy
(Laughter)
je vedený empatiou.
it's empathy driven. Actually, the way to study empathy in human children is to instruct a family member to act distressed, and then to see what young children do. And so it is related to empathy, and that's the kind of expressions we look at.
Vlastne empatia u detí ľudí sa skúma tak, že sa rodinnému členovi nariadi, aby sa správal skľúčene a potom sledujú, čo deti urobia. Takže to súvisí s empatiou a na takéto výrazy sa pozeráme. Taktiež sme nedávno publikovali experiment, o ktorom ste možno počuli.
We also recently published an experiment you may have heard about. It's on altruism and chimpanzees, where the question is: Do chimpanzees care about the welfare of somebody else? And for decades it had been assumed that only humans can do that, that only humans worry about the welfare of somebody else. Now we did a very simple experiment. We do that on chimpanzees that live in Lawrenceville, in the field station of Yerkes. And so that's how they live. And we call them into a room and do experiments with them. In this case, we put two chimpanzees side-by-side, and one has a bucket full of tokens, and the tokens have different meanings. One kind of token feeds only the partner who chooses, the other one feeds both of them.
Zaoberá sa altruizmom a šimpanzmi, pričom otázkou je, či sa šimpanzy starajú o blaho iných. A desiatky rokov sa predpokladalo, že to dokážu len ľudia, že len ľudia si robia starosti o blaho niekoho iného. My sme urobili veľmi jednoduchý experiment. Pracujeme so šimpanzmi, ktoré žijú v Lawrenceville, vo výskumnej stanici Yerkes. A takto žijú. My ich privoláme do miestnosti a robíme s nimi experimenty. V tomto prípade, sme dali dva šimpanzy vedľa seba, jeden má vedierko plné žetónov a tie majú rôzne významy. Jeden druh žetónov nakŕmi len partnera, ktorý si vyberá, druhý nakŕmi oboch,
So this is a study we did with Vicki Horner. And here, you have the two color tokens. So they have a whole bucket full of them. And they have to pick one of the two colors. You will see how that goes. So if this chimp makes the selfish choice, which is the red token in this case, he needs to give it to us, we pick it up, we put it on a table where there's two food rewards, but in this case, only the one on the right gets food. The one on the left walks away because she knows already that this is not a good test for her. Then the next one is the pro-social token.
Túto štúdiu sme urobili s Vicky Horner. A tu máte žetóny v dvoch farbách. Takže ich majú plné vedierko. A musia si vybrať jednu z dvoch farieb. Uvidíte, ako to dopadne. Takže ak sa tento šimpanz rozhodne sebecky, čo je v tomto prípade červený žetón, musí nám ho dať. Takže si ho vezmeme, dáme ho na stôl, kde sú dve jedlé odmeny, ale v tomto prípade jedlo dostane len ten napravo. Ten naľavo odchádza, pretože už vie, že toto pre neho nie je dobrý test. Ďalší je pro-sociálny žetón.
So the one who makes the choices -- that's the interesting part here -- for the one who makes the choices, it doesn't really matter. So she gives us now a pro-social token and both chimps get fed. So the one who makes the choices always gets a reward. So it doesn't matter whatsoever. And she should actually be choosing blindly. But what we find is that they prefer the pro-social token. So this is the 50 percent line, that's the random expectation. And especially if the partner draws attention to itself, they choose more.
Takže ten, ktorý robí rozhodnutia - to je to zaujímavé - tomu, ktorý robí rozhodnutia, je to jedno. Takže teraz nám dáva pro-sociálny žetón a oba šimpanzy sú nakŕmené. Takže ten, ktorý sa rozhoduje, vždy dostane odmenu. Takže je to úplne jedno. A v skutočnosti by sa mal rozhodovať naslepo. Ale zistili sme, že dávajú prednosť pro-sociálnym žetónom. Takže toto je čiara na úrovni 50 %, čo je náhodné očakávanie. A obzvlášť ak na seba partner upozorní, zvolia si to viac.
And if the partner puts pressure on them -- so if the partner starts spitting water and intimidating them -- then the choices go down.
A ak na nich partner tlačí - takže ak na nich partner začne pľuť vodu a zastrašovať ich - potom voľby klesajú.
(Laughter)
Je to akoby hovorili,
It's as if they're saying, "If you're not behaving, I'm not going to be pro-social today." And this is what happens without a partner, when there's no partner sitting there. So we found that the chimpanzees do care about the well-being of somebody else -- especially, these are other members of their own group.
"Ak sa nevieš správať, nebudem dnes pro-sociálny." A toto sa deje, keď tam nie je partner, keď tam nesedí partner. A tak sme zistili, že sa šimpanzy zaujímajú o blaho iných - obzvlášť, toto sú ostatní členovia ich vlastnej skupiny.
So the final experiment that I want to mention to you is our fairness study. And so this became a very famous study. And there are now many more, because after we did this about 10 years ago, it became very well-known. And we did that originally with capuchin monkeys. And I'm going to show you the first experiment that we did. It has now been done with dogs and with birds and with chimpanzees. But with Sarah Brosnan, we started out with capuchin monkeys.
Takže posledný experiment, o ktorom sa vám chcem zmieniť, je naša štúdia čestnosti. A táto štúdia sa stala veľmi známou. A teraz je mnoho ďalších, pretože po tom, čo sme ju pred 10 rokmi urobili, stala sa veľmi známou. Pôvodne sme to urobili s kapucínskymi opicami. A ukážem vám prvý experiment, ktorý sme urobili. Už to bolo urobené aj so psami a vtákmi a šimpanzmi. Ale so Sarah Brosnan sme začali s kapucínskymi opicami.
So what we did is we put two capuchin monkeys side-by-side. Again, these animals, live in a group, they know each other. We take them out of the group, put them in a test chamber. And there's a very simple task that they need to do. And if you give both of them cucumber for the task, the two monkeys side-by-side, they're perfectly willing to do this 25 times in a row. So cucumber, even though it's only really water in my opinion, but cucumber is perfectly fine for them. Now if you give the partner grapes -- the food preferences of my capuchin monkeys correspond exactly with the prices in the supermarket -- and so if you give them grapes -- it's a far better food -- then you create inequity between them. So that's the experiment we did.
Takže sme urobili to, že sme dali dve kapucínske opice vedľa seba. Znova, tieto zvieratá žijú v skupine, navzájom sa poznajú. Vzali sme ich zo skupiny a dali do testovacej miestnosti. A musia urobiť veľmi jednoduchú úlohu. A ak im obom za úlohu dáte uhorku, týmto dvom opiciam vedľa seba, budú ochotné urobiť tú úlohu pokojne aj 25 krát za sebou. Takže uhorka, aj keď je to podľa môjho názoru len samá voda, ale uhorka im úplne stačí. Teraz keď dáte partnerovi hrozno - preferencie jedla mojich kapucínskych opíc presne korešpondujú s cenami v supermarketoch - a tak keď im dáte hrozno - je to o dosť lepšie jedlo - potom medzi nimi vytvoríte nerovnosť. Takže to je experiment, ktorý sme urobili.
Recently, we videotaped it with new monkeys who'd never done the task, thinking that maybe they would have a stronger reaction, and that turned out to be right. The one on the left is the monkey who gets cucumber. The one on the right is the one who gets grapes. The one who gets cucumber -- note that the first piece of cucumber is perfectly fine. The first piece she eats. Then she sees the other one getting grape, and you will see what happens. So she gives a rock to us. That's the task. And we give her a piece of cucumber and she eats it. The other one needs to give a rock to us. And that's what she does. And she gets a grape ... and eats it. The other one sees that. She gives a rock to us now, gets, again, cucumber.
Nedávno sme ho natočili s novými opicami, ktoré túto úlohu nikdy nerobili, pretože sme si mysleli, že budú mať možno silnejšiu reakciu a to sa ukázalo ako pravda. Opica naľavo dostane uhorku. Tá napravo dostane hrozno. Tá, ktorá dostane uhorku, všimnite si, že prvý kúsok uhorky je úplne v poriadku. Prvý kúsok zje. Potom vidí, že druhá dostane hrozno a uvidíte, čo sa stane. Dá nám kamienok. To je tá úloha. A my jej dáme kúsok uhorky a ona ho zje. Druhá nám musí dať kamienok. A to aj urobí. Dostane hrozno a zje ho. Druhá to vidí. Teraz nám dá kamienok, dostane znova uhorku.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
(Laughter ends)
Teraz otestuje kamienok o stenu.
She tests a rock now against the wall. She needs to give it to us. And she gets cucumber again.
Musí nám ho dať. A znova dostane uhorku.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
So this is basically the Wall Street protest that you see here.
Takže tu v podstate vidíte Wall Street protest.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
(Applause)
(Potlesk)
I still have two minutes left -- let me tell you a funny story about this. This study became very famous and we got a lot of comments, especially anthropologists, economists, philosophers. They didn't like this at all. Because they had decided in their minds, I believe, that fairness is a very complex issue, and that animals cannot have it. And so one philosopher even wrote us that it was impossible that monkeys had a sense of fairness because fairness was invented during the French Revolution.
Dovoľte mi, aby som vám povedal - stále mám 2 minúty, poviem vám o tomto vtipnú príhodu. Táto štúdia sa stala veľmi slávnou a dostali sme veľa reakcií, obzvlášť od antropológov, ekonómov, filozofov. Vôbec sa im nepáčila. Pretože oni sa rozhodli, myslím, že čestnosť je veľmi komplexná záležitosť a že zvieratá ju nemôžu mať. A jeden filozof nám dokonca napísal, že je nemožné, aby opice mali zmysel pre čestnosť, pretože čestnosť bola vynájdená počas Francúzskej revolúcie.
(Laughter)
(Smiech)
And another one wrote a whole chapter saying that he would believe it had something to do with fairness, if the one who got grapes would refuse the grapes. Now the funny thing is that Sarah Brosnan, who's been doing this with chimpanzees, had a couple of combinations of chimpanzees where, indeed, the one who would get the grape would refuse the grape until the other guy also got a grape. So we're getting very close to the human sense of fairness. And I think philosophers need to rethink their philosophy for a while.
Ďalší nám napísal celú kapitolu o tom, že by uveril tomu, že to má niečo spoločné s čestnosťou, ak by ten, čo dostal hrozno, to hrozno odmietol. Vtipné je to, že Sarah Brosnan ktorá toto robila so šimpanzmi, mala niekoľko kombinácií šimpanzov kedy skutočne ten čo dostal hrozno, ho odmietol, kým ho nedostal aj druhý šimpanz. Takže sa dostávame veľmi blízko k ľudskému zmyslu pre čestnosť. A myslím, že filozofi potrebujú prehodnotiť ich filozofiu.
So let me summarize. I believe there's an evolved morality. I think morality is much more than what I've been talking about, but it would be impossible without these ingredients that we find in other primates, which are empathy and consolation, pro-social tendencies and reciprocity and a sense of fairness. And so we work on these particular issues to see if we can create a morality from the bottom up, so to speak, without necessarily god and religion involved, and to see how we can get to an evolved morality.
Takže to zhrniem. Verím, že je tu vyvinutá morálka. Myslím, že morálka je omnoho viac, než o čom som tu hovoril, ale bola by nemožná bez zložiek, ktoré nachádzame u ďalších primátov, ktorými sú empatia a útecha, pro-sociálne tendencie, vzájomnosť a zmysel pre čestnosť. A tak pracujeme na týchto konkrétnych veciach, aby sme zistili, či dokážeme vytvoriť morálku tak povediac zdola nahor, bez zásahu Boha alebo náboženstva, a zistili, ako sa dokážeme dostať k vyvinutej morálke.
And I thank you for your attention.
A ďakujem vám za pozornosť.
(Applause)
(Potlesk)