You don't know them. You don't see them. But they're always around, whispering, making secret plans, building armies with millions of soldiers. And when they decide to attack, they all attack at the same time. I'm talking about bacteria.
Hauwajui. Hauwaoni. Lakini daima wapo wanazunguka, wananong'oneza, wakitengeneza mipango ya siri, wakijenga jeshi la mamilioni ya wanajeshi. Na wanapoamua kushambulia, wanashambulia kwa wakati mmoja. Ninaongelea kuhusu bakteria.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
Who did you think I was talking about?
Mlidhani ninaongelea kuhusu nani?
Bacteria live in communities just like humans. They have families, they talk, and they plan their activities. And just like humans, they trick, deceive, and some might even cheat on each other. What if I tell you that we can listen to bacterial conversations and translate their confidential information into human language? And what if I tell you that translating bacterial conversations can save lives? I hold a PhD in nanophysics, and I've used nanotechnology to develop a real-time translation tool that can spy on bacterial communities and give us recordings of what bacteria are up to.
Bakteria wanaishi kwenye jamii kama tu binadamu. Wana familia, wanaongea, na wanapanga shughuli zao. Na kama tu binadamu, wanahila, waongo, na wengine hata wanadanganyana wenyewe. Je kama nikikuambia kua tunaweza kusikiliza mazungumzo ya bakteria na kutafsiri taarifa zao za siri kuwa lugha ya binadamu? Na kama je nikiwaambia kuwa kutafsiri mazungumzo ya bakteria kutaokoa maisha? Nina PhD ya nanofizikia, na nimetumia teknolojia ya nano kuunda chombo cha kutafsiri cha muda halisi kinachoweza kupeleleza kwenye jamii za bakteria na kutupa rekodi za nini bakteria wanafanya.
Bacteria live everywhere. They're in the soil, on our furniture and inside our bodies. In fact, 90 percent of all the live cells in this theater are bacterial. Some bacteria are good for us; they help us digest food or produce antibiotics. And some bacteria are bad for us; they cause diseases and death. To coordinate all the functions bacteria have, they have to be able to organize, and they do that just like us humans -- by communicating. But instead of using words, they use signaling molecules to communicate with each other. When bacteria are few, the signaling molecules just flow away, like the screams of a man alone in the desert. But when there are many bacteria, the signaling molecules accumulate, and the bacteria start sensing that they're not alone. They listen to each other. In this way, they keep track of how many they are and when they're many enough to initiate a new action. And when the signaling molecules have reached a certain threshold, all the bacteria sense at once that they need to act with the same action.
Bakteria wanaishi kila sehemu. Wako kwenye udongo, kwenye samani zetu na ndani ya miili yetu. Ki ukweli, asilimia 90 ya seli zote hai kwenye huu ukumbi ni bakteria. Baadhi ya bakteria ni wazuri kwetu; wanatusaidia kumeng'enya chakula au kutengeneza dawa. Na baadhi ya bakteria na wabaya kwetu: wanasababisha magonjwa na kifo. Kushirikisha kazi zote bakteria walizonazo, wanatakiwa wawe na uwezo wa kupanga, na wanafanya hivyo kama tu sisi binadamu -- kwa mawasiliano. Lakini badala ya kutumia maneno, wanatumia molekuli za ishara kuwasiliana wenyewe kwa wenyewe. Bakteria wanapokuwa wachche, molekuli za ishara zinatiririka nje, kama kelele za mtu peke yake jangwani. Lakini kukiwa na bakteria wengi, molekuli za ishara zinajikusanya, na bakteria wanaanza kuhisi kuwa hawapo peke yao. Wanasikilizana wenyewe. Kwa njia hii, wanapima wako wangapi na wanapokuwa wengi wa kutosha kuanzisha hatua mpya. Na pale molekuli za ishara zinafika kizingiti flani, bakteria wote wanahisi kwa mara moja kua wanahitaji kutenda kwa tendo hilo hilo.
So bacterial conversation consists of an initiative and a reaction, a production of a molecule and the response to it. In my research, I focused on spying on bacterial communities inside the human body. How does it work? We have a sample from a patient. It could be a blood or spit sample. We shoot electrons into the sample, the electrons will interact with any communication molecules present, and this interaction will give us information on the identity of the bacteria, the type of communication and how much the bacteria are talking.
Hivyo mazungumzo ya bakteria yanakuwa na mwanzo na jibu, uzalishaji wa molekuli na majibu yake. Kwenye utafiti wangu, nimelenga kupeleleza kwenye jamii za bakteria ndani ya mwili wa binadamu. Inafanyaje kazi? Tunasampuli kutoka kwa mgonjwa. Inaweza kuwa ni sampuli ya damu au mate. Tunapiga elektroni ndani ya sampuli, elektroni zitaingilia na molekuli zozote za mazungumzo zilizopo, na huu muingiliano utatupa taarifa ya aina ya bakteria, aina ya mawasiliano na kiasi gani bakteria wanazungumza.
But what is it like when bacteria communicate? Before I developed the translation tool, my first assumption was that bacteria would have a primitive language, like infants that haven't developed words and sentences yet. When they laugh, they're happy; when they cry, they're sad. Simple as that. But bacteria turned out to be nowhere as primitive as I thought they would be. A molecule is not just a molecule. It can mean different things depending on the context, just like the crying of babies can mean different things: sometimes the baby is hungry, sometimes it's wet, sometimes it's hurt or afraid. Parents know how to decode those cries. And to be a real translation tool, it had to be able to decode the signaling molecules and translate them depending on the context. And who knows? Maybe Google Translate will adopt this soon.
Lakini inakuaje pale bakteria wakizungumza? Kabla sijaunda chombo cha kutafsiri, dhana yangu ya kwanza ilikua bakteria watakua na lugha ya halisi, kama vichanga ambao bado hawajaunda maneno na sentensi. Wanapocheka, wanafuraha; wanapolia, wanahuzuni. Rahisi kama hivyo. Lakini bakteria walionekana kutokuwa karibu na halisi kama nilivyodhani. Molekuli sio tu molekuli. Inaweza kumaanisha vitu tofauti kulingana na muktadha, kama tu vilio vya watoto vinavyomaanisha vitu tofauti: saa nyingine mtoto ana njaa, saa nyingine amelowa, saa nyingine ameumia au anaogopa. Wazazi wanajua jinsi ya kusoma hivi vilio. Na kua chombo kizuri cha kutafsiri, kinatakiwa kiwe na uwezo wa kusoma molekuli za ishara na kuzitafsiri kulingana na muktadha. Na nani anajua? Labda Tafsiri ya Google inaweza kuiptisha hii.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
Let me give you an example. I've brought some bacterial data that can be a bit tricky to understand if you're not trained, but try to take a look.
Hebu niwape mfano. Nimeleta baadhi ya taarifa za bakteria zinazoweza kuwa ngumu kuelewa kama hauna mafunzo, lakini jaribu kuangalia.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
Here's a happy bacterial family that has infected a patient. Let's call them the Montague family. They share resources, they reproduce, and they grow. One day, they get a new neighbor, bacterial family Capulet.
Hii ni familia ya bakteria yeye furaha ambayo imemshambulia mgonjwa. Wacha tuwaite familia ya Montague. Wanatumia wote rasilimali, wanazaliana, wanakua. Siku moja, wanapata mgeni mpya, familia ya bakteria Capulet.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
Everything is fine, as long as they're working together. But then something unplanned happens. Romeo from Montague has a relationship with Juliet from Capulet.
Kila kitu ni sawa, alimradi wanafanya kazi kwa pamoja. Lakini kitu kisichopangwa kinatokea. Romeo wa Montague anakua na mahusiano na Juliet wa Capulet.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
And yes, they share genetic material.
Na ndio, wanagawiana chembe za urithi.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
Now, this gene transfer can be dangerous to the Montagues that have the ambition to be the only family in the patient they have infected, and sharing genes contributes to the Capulets developing resistance to antibiotics. So the Montagues start talking internally to get rid of this other family by releasing this molecule.
Sasa, uhamisho wa kinasaba unaweza kuwa hatari kwa wakina Montague waliokuwa na matarajio ya kuwa familia pekee kwenye mgonjwa waliomshambulia, kugawana chembe za urithi kunachangia kwa wakina Capulet kutengeneza kinga kwa dawa. Hivyo wakina Montague wanaanza kuongea kwa ndani kuondoa hii familia nyingine kwa kutoa molekuli hii.
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
And with subtitles:
Na kwa maelezo:
[Let us coordinate an attack.]
[Hebu turatibu shambulizi.]
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
Let's coordinate an attack. And then everybody at once responds by releasing a poison that will kill the other family.
Hebu turatibu shambulizi. Na kila mtu mara moja akaitikia kwa kutoa sumu itakayoua ile familia nyingine.
[Eliminate!]
[Ondoa!]
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
The Capulets respond by calling for a counterattack.
Wakina Capulet wakajibu kwa kuita shambulizi la kujibu.
[Counterattack!]
[Shambulia!]
And they have a battle.
Na wakawa na vita.
This is a video of real bacteria dueling with swordlike organelles, where they try to kill each other by literally stabbing and rupturing each other. Whoever's family wins this battle becomes the dominant bacteria.
Hii ni video ya bakteria wa ukweli wakipigana na viumbe kama upanga, ambapo wanajaribu kuuana kwa kuchomana kihalisi na kupasuana wenyewe. Familia ya yeyote atakayeshinda hii vita anakuwa bakteria mkuu.
So what I can do is to detect bacterial conversations that lead to different collective behaviors like the fight you just saw. And what I did was to spy on bacterial communities inside the human body in patients at a hospital. I followed 62 patients in an experiment, where I tested the patient samples for one particular infection, without knowing the results of the traditional diagnostic test.
Hivyo ninachoweza kufanya ni kuchunguza mazungumzo ya bakteria yanayopelekea tabia tofauti za kwa pamoja kama ugomvi mliyouona. Na nilichofanya ni kupeleleza kwenye jamii za bakteria ndani ya mwili wa binadamu kwenye wagonjwa hospitalini. Nilifuatilia wagonjwa 62 kwenye jaribio, ambapo nilipima sampuli ya mgonjwa kwa aina moja ya shambulizi, bila kujua majibu ya vipimo vya kawaida.
Now, in bacterial diagnostics, a sample is smeared out on a plate, and if the bacteria grow within five days, the patient is diagnosed as infected. When I finished the study and I compared the tool results to the traditional diagnostic test and the validation test, I was shocked. It was far more astonishing than I had ever anticipated.
Basi, kwenye upimaji wa bakteria, sampuli inasambazwa kwenye kisahani, na kama bakteria watakua ndani ya siku tano, mgonjwa anagunduliwa kama ameathirika. Nilipomaliza utafiti na kulinganisha majibu ya chombo na vipimo vya kawaida na vipimo vya kuhakikisha, nilishtuka. Ilikua inashangaza zaidi kuliko nilivyowahi kutarajia.
But before I tell you what the tool revealed, I would like to tell you about a specific patient I followed, a young girl. She had cystic fibrosis, a genetic disease that made her lungs susceptible to bacterial infections. This girl wasn't a part of the clinical trial. I followed her because I knew from her medical record that she had never had an infection before. Once a month, this girl went to the hospital to cough up a sputum sample that she spit in a cup. This sample was transferred for bacterial analysis at the central laboratory so the doctors could act quickly if they discovered an infection. And it allowed me to test my device on her samples as well.
Ila kabla sijawaambia nini chombo kilionyesha, ningependa kuwaambia kuhusu mgonjwa mahsusi niliomfuatilia, binti mdogo. Alikua na cystic fibrosis, ugonjwa wa kurithi uliofanya mapafu yake kuathiriwa kirahisi na bakteria. Huyu binti hakua sehemu ya majaribio. Nilimfuatilia kwa sababu nilijua kutoka kwenye taarifa zake kua hakuwahi kupata mashambulizi kabla. Mara moja kwa mwezi, huyu binti alienda hospitali kuweka sampuli ya kohozi ambayo alitemea kwenye kikombe. Hii sampuli ilisafirishwa kwa uchunguzi wa bakteria huko maabara kuu ili madaktari watende haraka iwapi wangekuta shambulizi. Iliniruhusu mimi kupima chombo changu kwa sampuli zake pia.
The first two months I measured on her samples, there was nothing. But the third month, I discovered some bacterial chatter in her sample. The bacteria were coordinating to damage her lung tissue. But the traditional diagnostics showed no bacteria at all. I measured again the next month, and I could see that the bacterial conversations became even more aggressive. Still, the traditional diagnostics showed nothing. My study ended, but a half a year later, I followed up on her status to see if the bacteria only I knew about had disappeared without medical intervention. They hadn't. But the girl was now diagnosed with a severe infection of deadly bacteria. It was the very same bacteria my tool discovered earlier. And despite aggressive antibiotic treatment, it was impossible to eradicate the infection. Doctors deemed that she would not survive her 20s.
Miezi miwili ya mwanzo nilipima sampuli zake, hakukua na kitu. Lakini mwezi wa tatu, Niligundua mazungumzo ya bakteria kwenye sampuli yake. Bakteria walikua wanashirikiana kuharibu tishu ya pafu lake. Lakini vipimo vya kawaida havikuonyesha bakteria kabisa. Nilipima tena mwezi ujao, na niliona kua yale mazungumzo ya bakteria yamekua makali zaidi. Bado, vipimo vya kawaida havikuonyesha chochote. Utafiti wangu ukaisha, lakini nusu mwaka baadae, nikafuatilia hali yake kuona kama bakteria niliowajua pekee walipotea bila muingilio wa tiba. Hawakupotea. Yule binti sasa alikua amegundulika na mashambulio makali ya bakteria wabaya. Walikua ni wale wale bakteria chombo changu kiligundua kabla. Na licha ya ukali wa dawa za kutibu, ilikua inashindikana kuondoa mashambulizi. Madaktari waliona kua asingeweza kufikia miaka ya 20.
When I measured on this girl's samples, my tool was still in the initial stage. I didn't even know if my method worked at all, therefore I had an agreement with the doctors not to tell them what my tool revealed in order not to compromise their treatment. So when I saw these results that weren't even validated, I didn't dare to tell because treating a patient without an actual infection also has negative consequences for the patient. But now we know better, and there are many young boys and girls that still can be saved because, unfortunately, this scenario happens very often. Patients get infected, the bacteria somehow don't show on the traditional diagnostic test, and suddenly, the infection breaks out in the patient with severe symptoms. And at that point, it's already too late.
Nilipopima kwenye sampuli ya binti huyu, kifaa changu kilikua kwenye hatua za mwanzo. Sikujua hata kama njia yangu ilifanya kazi kabisa, hivyo nikawa na makubaliano na madaktari kutowaambia chombo changu kilichoonyesha ili kutokuharibu matibabu yao. Hivyo nilipoona haya majibu ambayo hata hayakuwa yamehakikishwa, sikudhubutu kusema ka sababu kutibu mgonjwa bila mashambulizi halisi pia ina matokeo mabaya kwa mgonjwa. Lakini sasa tunajua bora, na kuna wavulana na wasichana wadogo wengi bado wanaweza kuokolewa kwa sababu, bahati mbaya, hii hali inatokea mara nyingi. Wagonjwa wanaathirika, bakteria kwa namna flani hawaonekani kwenye vipimo vya kawaida, na ghafla, maambukizi yanatokea ndani ya mgojwa na dalili kali. Na kwenye mda huo, tayari tumechelewa.
The surprising result of the 62 patients I followed was that my device caught bacterial conversations in more than half of the patient samples that were diagnosed as negative by traditional methods. In other words, more than half of these patients went home thinking they were free from infection, although they actually carried dangerous bacteria. Inside these wrongly diagnosed patients, bacteria were coordinating a synchronized attack. They were whispering to each other. What I call "whispering bacteria" are bacteria that traditional methods cannot diagnose. So far, it's only the translation tool that can catch those whispers. I believe that the time frame in which bacteria are still whispering is a window of opportunity for targeted treatment. If the girl had been treated during this window of opportunity, it might have been possible to kill the bacteria in their initial stage, before the infection got out of hand.
Majibu ya kushangaza ya wagonjwa 62 niliowafuatilia yalikua chombo changu kilishika mazungumzo ya bakteria kwa zaidi ya nusu ya sampuli za wagonjwa ambao walikua wamegundulika bila kitu kwa njia za upimaji za kawaida. Kwa maneno mengine, zaidi ya nusu ya hawa wagonjwa walirudi nyumbani wakiwaza kua wako huru na maambukizi, japokuwa kihalisi walibeba bakteria hatari. Ndani ya wagonjwa waliopimwa vibaya, bakteria walikuwa wanaandaa shambulizi la kuambatanishwa. Walikua wananong'onezana. Ninachoita "mnong'ono wa bakteria" ni bakteria ambao njia za kawaida za upimjai haziwezi kuona. Mpaka sasa, ni chombo cha kutafsiri tu kinachoweza kudaka hao wanong'onezaji. Ninaamini kua mda uliopo ambao bakteria bado wananong'onezana ni nafasi nzuri ya matibabu ya malengo. Kama yule binti angekua ametibiwwa kwenye kuu mda wenye nafasi, ingekua inawezekana kuua bakteria kwenye hatua yao ya mwanzo, kabla maambukizi kuwa nje ya uwezo.
What I experienced with this young girl made me decide to do everything I can to push this technology into the hospital. Together with doctors, I'm already working on implementing this tool in clinics to diagnose early infections.
Nilichopitia na huyu binti mdogo kumenifanya niamue kufanya ninachoweza kusukuma hii teknolojia kwenye hospitali. Pamoja na madaktari, tayari ninafanya kazi kutumia hiki kifaa kwenye kliniki kutambua maambukizi ya kwanza.
Although it's still not known how doctors should treat patients during the whispering phase, this tool can help doctors keep a closer eye on patients in risk. It could help them confirm if a treatment had worked or not, and it could help answer simple questions: Is the patient infected? And what are the bacteria up to?
Japo bado haijajulikana jinsi madaktari watatibu wagonjwa kwenye kipindi cha mnong'ono, hiki kifaa kinaweza kusaidia madaktari kuwa makini na wagonjwa kwenye hatari. Kinaweza kuwasaidia kuhakikisha kama tiba imefanya kazi au la, na inaweza kusaidia kujibu maswali rahisi: Mgonjwa ana mashambulizi? Na bakteria wako wanapanga nini?
Bacteria talk, they make secret plans, and they send confidential information to each other. But not only can we catch them whispering, we can all learn their secret language and become ourselves bacterial whisperers. And, as bacteria would say, "3-oxo-C12-aniline."
Bakteria wanaongea, wanatengeneza mipango ya siri, na wanatumiana taarifa za siri. Lakini sio tu kuawaangalia wenyewe wakinong'onezana, sisi sote tunaweza kujifunza lugha ya siri na kua wenyewe wanong'onezi wa bakteria. Na, kama bakteria wangesema, "3-oxo-C12-aniline."
(Laughter)
(Kicheko)
(Applause)
(Makofi)
Thank you.
Asanteni.