When I was in fourth grade, my teacher said to us one day: "There are as many even numbers as there are numbers." "Really?", I thought. Well, yeah, there are infinitely many of both, so I suppose there are the same number of them. But even numbers are only part of the whole numbers, all the odd numbers are left over, so there's got to be more whole numbers than even numbers, right? To see what my teacher was getting at, let's first think about what it means for two sets to be the same size. What do I mean when I say I have the same number of fingers on my right hand as I do on left hand? Of course, I have five fingers on each, but it's actually simpler than that. I don't have to count, I only need to see that I can match them up, one to one. In fact, we think that some ancient people who spoke languages that didn't have words for numbers greater than three used this sort of magic. For instance, if you let your sheep out of a pen to graze, you can keep track of how many went out by setting aside a stone for each one, and putting those stones back one by one when the sheep return, so you know if any are missing without really counting. As another example of matching being more fundamental than counting, if I'm speaking to a packed auditorium, where every seat is taken and no one is standing, I know that there are the same number of chairs as people in the audience, even though I don't know how many there are of either. So, what we really mean when we say that two sets are the same size is that the elements in those sets can be matched up one by one in some way. My fourth grade teacher showed us the whole numbers laid out in a row, and below each we have its double. As you can see, the bottom row contains all the even numbers, and we have a one-to-one match. That is, there are as many even numbers as there are numbers. But what still bothers us is our distress over the fact that even numbers seem to be only part of the whole numbers. But does this convince you that I don't have the same number of fingers on my right hand as I do on my left? Of course not. It doesn't matter if you try to match the elements in some way and it doesn't work, that doesn't convince us of anything. If you can find one way in which the elements of two sets do match up, then we say those two sets have the same number of elements. Can you make a list of all the fractions? This might be hard, there are a lot of fractions! And it's not obvious what to put first, or how to be sure all of them are on the list. Nevertheless, there is a very clever way that we can make a list of all the fractions. This was first done by Georg Cantor, in the late eighteen hundreds. First, we put all the fractions into a grid. They're all there. For instance, you can find, say, 117/243, in the 117th row and 243rd column. Now we make a list out of this by starting at the upper left and sweeping back and forth diagonally, skipping over any fraction, like 2/2, that represents the same number as one the we've already picked. We get a list of all the fractions, which means we've created a one-to-one match between the whole numbers and the fractions, despite the fact that we thought maybe there ought to be more fractions. OK, here's where it gets really interesting. You may know that not all real numbers -- that is, not all the numbers on a number line -- are fractions. The square root of two and pi, for instance. Any number like this is called irrational. Not because it's crazy, or anything, but because the fractions are ratios of whole numbers, and so are called rationals; meaning the rest are non-rational, that is, irrational. Irrationals are represented by infinite, non-repeating decimals. So, can we make a one-to-one match between the whole numbers and the set of all the decimals, both the rationals and the irrationals? That is, can we make a list of all the decimal numbers? Cantor showed that you can't. Not merely that we don't know how, but that it can't be done. Look, suppose you claim you have made a list of all the decimals. I'm going to show you that you didn't succeed, by producing a decimal that is not on your list. I'll construct my decimal one place at a time. For the first decimal place of my number, I'll look at the first decimal place of your first number. If it's a one, I'll make mine a two; otherwise I'll make mine a one. For the second place of my number, I'll look at the second place of your second number. Again, if yours is a one, I'll make mine a two, and otherwise I'll make mine a one. See how this is going? The decimal I've produced can't be on your list. Why? Could it be, say, your 143rd number? No, because the 143rd place of my decimal is different from the 143rd place of your 143rd number. I made it that way. Your list is incomplete. It doesn't contain my decimal number. And, no matter what list you give me, I can do the same thing, and produce a decimal that's not on that list. So we're faced with this astounding conclusion: The decimal numbers cannot be put on a list. They represent a bigger infinity that the infinity of whole numbers. So, even though we're familiar with only a few irrationals, like square root of two and pi, the infinity of irrationals is actually greater than the infinity of fractions. Someone once said that the rationals -- the fractions -- are like the stars in the night sky. The irrationals are like the blackness. Cantor also showed that, for any infinite set, forming a new set made of all the subsets of the original set represents a bigger infinity than that original set. This means that, once you have one infinity, you can always make a bigger one by making the set of all subsets of that first set. And then an even bigger one by making the set of all the subsets of that one. And so on. And so, there are an infinite number of infinities of different sizes. If these ideas make you uncomfortable, you are not alone. Some of the greatest mathematicians of Cantor's day were very upset with this stuff. They tried to make these different infinities irrelevant, to make mathematics work without them somehow. Cantor was even vilified personally, and it got so bad for him that he suffered severe depression, and spent the last half of his life in and out of mental institutions. But eventually, his ideas won out. Today, they're considered fundamental and magnificent. All research mathematicians accept these ideas, every college math major learns them, and I've explained them to you in a few minutes. Some day, perhaps, they'll be common knowledge. There's more. We just pointed out that the set of decimal numbers -- that is, the real numbers -- is a bigger infinity than the set of whole numbers. Cantor wondered whether there are infinities of different sizes between these two infinities. He didn't believe there were, but couldn't prove it. Cantor's conjecture became known as the continuum hypothesis. In 1900, the great mathematician David Hilbert listed the continuum hypothesis as the most important unsolved problem in mathematics. The 20th century saw a resolution of this problem, but in a completely unexpected, paradigm-shattering way. In the 1920s, Kurt Gödel showed that you can never prove that the continuum hypothesis is false. Then, in the 1960s, Paul J. Cohen showed that you can never prove that the continuum hypothesis is true. Taken together, these results mean that there are unanswerable questions in mathematics. A very stunning conclusion. Mathematics is rightly considered the pinnacle of human reasoning, but we now know that even mathematics has its limitations. Still, mathematics has some truly amazing things for us to think about.
Kada sam bio u 4. razredu, učitelj nam je rekao: "Parnih i celih brojeva ima podjednako mnogo." "Zaista?", pomislio sam. Ali, i jednih i drugih ima beskrajno mnogo, pa je logično da ih ima isto. Ali, sa druge strane, parni brojevi su samo deo celih brojeva, ostaju neparni brojevi, tako da mora da bude više celih nego parnih brojeva, zar ne? Da bismo razumeli šta je moj učitelj mislio, hajde prvo da razmislimo šta znači imati dva jednaka skupa. Šta mislim kada kažem da na levoj i desnoj šaci imam isti broj prstiju? Naravno, imam po 5 prstiju na svakoj, ali to je zapravo još jednostavnije. Ne moram da brojim, dovoljno je da vidim da svaki prst sa jedne ruke ima svoj par na drugoj. Zapravo, verujemo da su neki stari narodi čiji jezici nisu imali reči za brojeve veće od 3 koristili ovu vrstu uparivanja. Recimo, ako pustite ovce iz obora na ispašu, možete pratiti koliko ih je otišlo tako što ćete odvojiti po kamenčić za svaku, a onda vratiti te kamenčiće na mesto, jedan po jedan, kako se ovce vraćaju. Na taj način, znate ukoliko neka nedostaje i bez pravog brojanja. Kao još jedan primer da je uparivanje mnogo jednostavnije od brojanja je da ako govorim u prepunoj prostoriji, a sva mesta su popunjena i niko ne stoji, znam da je isti broj stolica i prisutnih ljudi iako ne znam koliko je tačno jednih ili drugih. Dakle, šta u stvari mislimo kada kažemo da su dva skupa jednaka jeste da svi elementi oba skupa mogu biti upareni, jedan prema jedan, na neki način. Dakle, moj učitelj je ispisao cele brojeve u jednom redu i ispod svakog je dopisao duplo veći broj. Kao što vidite, donji red sadrži sve parne brojeve i imamo poklapanje "1-1". Ovo pokazuje da postoji isti broj celih i parnih brojeva. Ali, još uvek nam je smetala činjenica da su parni brojevi samo deo skupa celih brojeva. Ali, da li vas ovo ubeđuje da na desnoj ruci nemam isti broj prstiju kao na levoj? Naravno da ne. Nebitno je ako pokušamo da uparimo elemente na neki način i to ne uspe, to nas ne ubeđuje ni u šta. Ali ako nađemo makar jedan način da uparimo elemente dva skupa, onda kažemo da ti skupovi imaju isti broj elemenata. Možete li da napravite spisak svih razlomaka? Teško, ima ih previše! Dodatno, nije očigledno šta ide prvo i kako biti siguran da je sve na spisku. Ipak, postoji jako dobar način na koji možemo napraviti spisak svih razlomaka. Georg Kentor je bio prvi koji je ovo uradio, krajem 19. veka. Prvo, napravimo tabelu svih razlomaka. Svi su tu. Na primer, možemo naći 117/243 u 117. redu i 243. koloni. Zatim pravimo spisak počinjući iz gornjeg levog ugla i idemo napred i nazad dijagonalno, preskačući sve razlomke poput 2/2, jer oni predstavljaju isti broj koji smo već zapisali. Tako dobijemo spisak svih razlomaka, što znači da smo napravili "1-1" povezivanje između celih brojeva i razlomaka, iako smo na početku mislili da razlomaka ima više. Ok, sada postaje stvarno zanimljivo. Možda znate da nisu svi realni brojevi - oni koji se nalaze na brojevnoj pravoj - razlomci. Kvadratni koren iz 2 i Pi, na primer. Svaki broj poput ovih zove se iracionalan. Ne jer je lud ili nešto tako, već zato što su razlomci delovi celih brojeva i zato su nazvani "racionalni"; što znači da je ostatak ne-racionalan, odnosno, "iracionalan". Iracionalni brojevi imaju beskonačne, neponavljajuće decimale. Pitanje je možemo li napraviti "1-1" poklapanje između svih celih brojeva i skupa svih decimala, i za racionalne i za iracionalne brojeve? Odnosno, možemo li napraviti spisak svih decimala? Kendor je pokazao da ne možemo. Ne samo da ne znamo kako, već da to ne može biti urađeno. Pogledajte, pretpostavimo da tvrdite da ste napravili spisak svih decimala. Pokazaću vam da niste uspeli pravljenjem decimale koja nije na vašoj listi. Postepeno ću dodavati po jedan broj svojoj decimali. Za prvo mesto u mojoj decimali pogledaću prvi broj u vašoj decimali. Ako je to 1, ja ću u mojoj zapisati 2; u suprotnom, zapisaću 1. Za drugo mesto mog broja, pogledaću drugo mesto vašeg drugog broja. Ponovo, ako je vaš 1, zapisaću 2; u suprotnom, zapisaću 1. Vidite kako ide? Broj koji stvaram ne može biti na vašoj listi. Zašto? Hajde da pogledamo da li je 143. broj isti? Ne, zato što je 143. broj u mojoj decimali različit od 143. mesta u vašem 143. broju. Tako sam napravio svoj broj. Dakle, vaša lista nije kompletna jer ne sadrži moj decimalni broj. I, bez obzira kakvu listu brojeva mi date, mogu uraditi isto i stvoriti decimalu koje nema kod vas. Dakle, suočavamo se sa zapanjujućim zaključkom: ne možemo napraviti spisak svih decimalnih brojeva. Oni predstavljaju veću beskonačnost od beskonačnosti celih brojeva. Iako smo upoznati sa nekim iracionalnim brojevima, poput kvadratnog korena iz 2 i Pi, beskonačnost iracionalnih brojeva zapravo je veća i od beskonačnosti razlomaka. Neko je jednom rekao da su racionalni brojevi - razlomci - poput zvezda na noćnom nebu; dok su iracionalni tama između njih. Kentor je još pokazao da, ako za bilo koji beskonačni skup napravimo novi skup, sačinjen od svih podskupova polaznog skupa, to će biti veća beskonačnost od one koju ima polazni skup. Ovo znači da kada imamo jednu beskonačnost, uvek možemo da napravimo veću, formirajući skup sačinjen od svih podskupova prvog skupa. A onda čak i veću praveći skup svih podskupova drugog skupa. Itd. Dakle, postoji beskonačan broj beskonačnosti različitih veličina. Ako se zbog ove pomisli osećate nelagodno, niste jedini. Neki od najvećih matematičara, Kentorovih savremenika, bili su veoma zaokupljeni ovim problemima. Pokušali su da ove različite beskonačnosti učine nevažnim, da omoguće matematici da nekako funkcioniše i bez njih. Kentor je bio čak i lično omalovažavan, što je uticalo na tešku depresiju kroz koju je prošao. Proveo je drugu polovinu života u čestim posetama psihijatrijskim ustanovama. Ali na kraju, njegove ideje su priznate. Danas ih smatraju temeljnim i veličanstvenim. Svi matematičari koji se bave istraživanjem prihvataju su ove ideje, one se uče na svim matematičkim fakultetima i objasnio sam vam ih u nekoliko minuta. Jednog dana će, verovatno, postati deo opšte kulture. Ali ima još. Upravo smo istakli da skup decimalnih, odnosno realnih brojeva, predstavlja veću beskonačnost od skupa celih brojeva. Kendor se pitao postoje li beskonačnosti različitih veličina između ovih dveju beskonačnosti. Verovao je da ne postoje, ali nije mogao to da dokaže. Kendorova pretpostavka postala je poznata kao hipoteza kontinuuma. 1900., veliki matematičar Dejvid Hilbert izdvojio je hipotezu kontinuuma kao najvažniji nerešeni problem u matematici. 20. vek je doneo rešenje ovog problema, ali na potpuno neočekivan način koji je promenio ceo pristup problemu. Tokom 1920-ih Kurt Godel je pokazao da je nemoguće dokazati da je hipoteza kontnuuma pogrešna. Zatim, tokom 1960-ih, Pol Dž. Košon je pokazao da je nemoguće dokazati da je hipoteza kontinuuma tačna. Sve skupa, ovo pokazuje da u matematici postoje pitanja na koja nema odgovora. Veoma iznenađujući zaključak. Matematika se s pravom smatra vrhuncem ljudskog razmišljanja, ali danas nam je poznato da čak i matematika ima ograničenja. Ipak, matematika nam pruža neke zaista neverovatne stvari o kojima možemo da razmišljamo.