I'd like to talk today about how we can change our brains and our society.
Želeo bih da govorim danas o tome kako možemo promeniti svoje mozgove i svoje društvo.
Meet Joe. Joe's 32 years old and a murderer. I met Joe 13 years ago on the lifer wing at Wormwood Scrubs high-security prison in London. I'd like you to imagine this place. It looks and feels like it sounds: Wormwood Scrubs. Built at the end of the Victorian Era by the inmates themselves, it is where England's most dangerous prisoners are kept. These individuals have committed acts of unspeakable evil. And I was there to study their brains. I was part of a team of researchers from University College London, on a grant from the U.K. department of health. My task was to study a group of inmates who had been clinically diagnosed as psychopaths. That meant they were the most callous and the most aggressive of the entire prison population. What lay at the root of their behavior? Was there a neurological cause for their condition? And if there was a neurological cause, could we find a cure?
Upoznajte Džoa. Džo ima 32 godine i ubica je. Upoznao sam ga pre 13 godina u krilu za doživotne osuđenike u veoma zaštićenom Vormvud Skrabs zatvoru u Londonu. Želeo bih da zamislite to mesto. Izgleda i deluje kao što zvuči: Vormvud Skrabs. Izgradili su ga pred kraj Viktorijanske ere sami stanovnici, tamo su držani najozloglašeniji engleski zatvorenici. Ove osobe su počinile dela neizrecivog zla. Bio sam tamo da izučavam njihove mozgove. Bio sam deo istraživačkog tima sa Londonskog univerzitetskog koledža uz podršku britanskog Ministarstva zdravlja. Moj zadatak je bio da proučavam grupu stanovnika koji su bili klinički dijagnostikovani kao psihopate. To je značilo da su bili najokoreliji i najagresivniji među celom zatvorskom populacijom. Šta leži u korenu njihovog ponašanja? Da li je postojao neurološki uzrok za njihovo stanje? I ako je postojao neurološki uzrok, da li bismo mogli naći lek?
So I'd like to speak about change, and especially about emotional change. Growing up, I was always intrigued by how people change. My mother, a clinical psychotherapist, would occasionally see patients at home in the evening. She would shut the door to the living room, and I imagined magical things happened in that room. At the age of five or six I would creep up in my pajamas and sit outside with my ear glued to the door. On more than one occasion, I fell asleep and they had to push me out of the way at the end of the session.
Voleo bih da pričam o promeni, a naročito o emocionalnoj promeni. Tokom odrastanja, uvek sam bio zaintrigiran time kako se ljudi menjaju. Moja majka, klinički psihoterapeut, povremeno bi primala pacijente kod kuće uveče. Zatvorila bi vrata dnevne sobe, a ja sam zamišljao da se magične stvari događaju u toj sobi. Kad sam imao 5 ili 6 godina došunjao bih se u pidžami i seo napolju sa uvetom prilepljenim za vrata. U više navrata bih zaspao i morali su da me sklanjaju odatle na kraju seanse.
And I suppose that's how I found myself walking into the secure interview room on my first day at Wormwood Scrubs. Joe sat across a steel table and greeted me with this blank expression. The prison warden, looking equally indifferent, said, "Any trouble, just press the red buzzer, and we'll be around as soon as we can." (Laughter)
Pretpostavljam da sam se iz tog razloga zatekao kako ulazim u osiguranu sobu za intervju svog prvog dana u Vormvud Skrabsu. Džo je sedeo naspram čeličnog stola i pozdravio me je bezizražajno. Zatvorski čuvar, koji je delovao podjednako nezainteresovano, rekao je: "U slučaju nevolje, samo pritisnite crveno zvonce, i stižemo što pre možemo." (Smeh)
I sat down. The heavy metal door slammed shut behind me. I looked up at the red buzzer far behind Joe on the opposite wall. (Laughter)
Seo sam. Teška metalna vrata zalupila su se za mnom. Pogledao sam u crveno zvono daleko iza Džoa na suprotnom zidu. (Smeh)
I looked at Joe. Perhaps detecting my concern, he leaned forward, and said, as reassuringly as he could, "Ah, don't worry about the buzzer, it doesn't work anyway." (Laughter)
Pogledao sam Džoa. Možda primetivši moju zabrinutost, nagnuo se napred i rekao, što je više ohrabrujuće mogao: "Ah, ne brini za zvono, ionako ne radi." (Smeh)
Over the subsequent months, we tested Joe and his fellow inmates, looking specifically at their ability to categorize different images of emotion. And we looked at their physical response to those emotions. So, for example, when most of us look at a picture like this of somebody looking sad, we instantly have a slight, measurable physical response: increased heart rate, sweating of the skin. Whilst the psychopaths in our study were able to describe the pictures accurately, they failed to show the emotions required. They failed to show a physical response. It was as though they knew the words but not the music of empathy. So we wanted to look closer at this to use MRI to image their brains. That turned out to be not such an easy task. Imagine transporting a collection of clinical psychopaths across central London in shackles and handcuffs in rush hour, and in order to place each of them in an MRI scanner, you have to remove all metal objects, including shackles and handcuffs, and, as I learned, all body piercings.
Tokom narednih meseci, testirali smo Džoa i njegove drugove zatvorenike, posebno posmatrajući njihovu sposobnost da kategorišu različite slike emocija. Posmatrali smo njihovu fizičku reakciju na te emocije. Tako na primer, kada većina nas gleda sliku poput ove gde neko deluje tužno, mi momentalno imamo blagu, merljivu fizičku reakciju: ubrzani otkucaji srca, znojenje. Dok su psihopate u našem istraživanju bile u stanju da tačno opišu slike, nisu umeli da pokažu tražene emocije. Nisu mogli da pokažu fizičku reakciju. Kao da su znali reči ali ne i muziku empatije. Želeli smo da ovo posmatramo bliže koristeći MRI da skeniramo njihove mozgove. Ispostavilo se da to nije tako lak zadatak. Zamislite da prevozite grupu kliničkih psihopata kroz centralni London u lancima i lisicama u sred saobraćajne gužve, a da biste stavili svakog od njih u MRI skener, morate da uklonite sve metalne predmete, uključujući lance i lisice, i, kako sam saznao, sve pirsinge na telu.
After some time, however, we had a tentative answer. These individuals were not just the victims of a troubled childhood. There was something else. People like Joe have a deficit in a brain area called the amygdala. The amygdala is an almond-shaped organ deep within each of the hemispheres of the brain. It is thought to be key to the experience of empathy. Normally, the more empathic a person is, the larger and more active their amygdala is. Our population of inmates had a deficient amygdala, which likely led to their lack of empathy and to their immoral behavior.
Nakon izvesnog vremena smo imali privremeni odgovor. Ove osobe nisu bile samo žrtve problematičnog detinjstva. Postojalo je nešto drugo. Ljudi kao što je Džo imaju deficit u oblasti mozga po imenu amigdala. Amigdala je organ u obliku badema duboko unutar obe hemisfere mozga. Smatra se ključnim za iskustvo empatije. Obično, što je osoba više empatična, amigdala je veća i aktivnija. Naša populacija zatvorenika imala je defektnu amigdalu, što je verovatno dovelo do njihovog nedostatka empatije i nemoralnog ponašanja.
So let's take a step back. Normally, acquiring moral behavior is simply part of growing up, like learning to speak. At the age of six months, virtually every one of us is able to differentiate between animate and inanimate objects. At the age of 12 months, most children are able to imitate the purposeful actions of others. So for example, your mother raises her hands to stretch, and you imitate her behavior. At first, this isn't perfect. I remember my cousin Sasha, two years old at the time, looking through a picture book and licking one finger and flicking the page with the other hand, licking one finger and flicking the page with the other hand. (Laughter) Bit by bit, we build the foundations of the social brain so that by the time we're three, four years old, most children, not all, have acquired the ability to understand the intentions of others, another prerequisite for empathy. The fact that this developmental progression is universal, irrespective of where you live in the world or which culture you inhabit, strongly suggests that the foundations of moral behavior are inborn. If you doubt this, try, as I've done, to renege on a promise you've made to a four-year-old. You will find that the mind of a four-year old is not naïve in the slightest. It is more akin to a Swiss army knife with fixed mental modules finely honed during development and a sharp sense of fairness. The early years are crucial. There seems to be a window of opportunity, after which mastering moral questions becomes more difficult, like adults learning a foreign language. That's not to say it's impossible. A recent, wonderful study from Stanford University showed that people who have played a virtual reality game in which they took on the role of a good and helpful superhero actually became more caring and helpful towards others afterwards. Now I'm not suggesting we endow criminals with superpowers, but I am suggesting that we need to find ways to get Joe and people like him to change their brains and their behavior, for their benefit and for the benefit of the rest of us.
Vratimo se korak unazad. Obično, sticanje moralnog ponašanja je jednostavno deo odrastanja, kao što je učenje govora. Na uzrastu od šest meseci, praktično svi mi smo u stanju da razlikujemo žive i nežive objekte. Na uzrastu od 12 meseci, većina dece je u stanju da imitira svrsishodne postupke drugih. Tako na primer, vaša majka podiže ruke da se protegne i vi imitirate njeno ponašanje. U početku, to nije savršeno. Sećam se moje rođake Saše, koja je imala dve godine u to vreme, kako razgleda slikovnicu i liže jedan prst i prevrće stranicu drugom rukom, liže jedan prst i prevrće stranicu drugom rukom, (Smeh) Malo po malo, gradimo osnove društvenog mozga tako da dok napunimo tri-četiri godine, većina dece, ne sva, su stekla sposobnost da razumeju namere drugih, drugi preduslov za empatiju. Činjenica da je ovaj razvojni sled univerzalan, nezavisno od toga gde živite ili u kojoj kulturi ste nastanjeni, snažno ukazuje da su osnove moralnog ponašanja urođene. Ako sumnjate u ovo, pokušajte, kao što sam ja probao, da ne održite obećanje koje ste dali četvorogodišnjaku. Otkrićete da um četvorogodišnjaka nije nimalo naivan. Sličan je švajcarskom nožu sa fiksiranim mentalnim modulima fino naštelovanim tokom razvoja i jakim osećajem za pravednost. Prve godine su ključne. Kao da postoje vrata mogućnosti, nakon kojih savladavanje moralnih pitanja postaje teže, kao kada odrasli uče strani jezik. Ne može se reći da je to nemoguće. Skorašnje sjajno istraživanje sa Univerziteta Stenford pokazalo je da su ljudi koji su igrali igricu virtuelne realnosti u kojoj su preuzeli ulogu dobrog i korisnog superheroja zapravo postali brižniji i uslužni prema drugima nakon toga. Ne predlažem da obezbedimo supermoći za kriminalce, ali predlažem da nađemo načine da postignemo da Džo i njemu slični promene svoj mozak i ponašanje, za njihovo dobro i dobro svih nas.
So can brains change? For over 100 years, neuroanatomists and later neuroscientists held the view that after initial development in childhood, no new brain cells could grow in the adult human brain. The brain could only change within certain set limits. That was the dogma. But then, in the 1990s, studies starting showing, following the lead of Elizabeth Gould at Princeton and others, studies started showing the evidence of neurogenesis, the birth of new brain cells in the adult mammalian brain, first in the olfactory bulb, which is responsible for our sense of smell, then in the hippocampus involving short-term memory, and finally in the amygdala itself. In order to understand how this process works, I left the psychopaths and joined a lab in Oxford specializing in learning and development. Instead of psychopaths, I studied mice, because the same pattern of brain responses appears across many different species of social animals. So if you rear a mouse in a standard cage, a shoebox, essentially, with cotton wool, alone and without much stimulation, not only does it not thrive, but it will often develop strange, repetitive behaviors. This naturally sociable animal will lose its ability to bond with other mice, even becoming aggressive when introduced to them. However, mice reared in what we called an enriched environment, a large habitation with other mice with wheels and ladders and areas to explore, demonstrate neurogenesis, the birth of new brain cells, and as we showed, they also perform better on a range of learning and memory tasks. Now, they don't develop morality to the point of carrying the shopping bags of little old mice across the street, but their improved environment results in healthy, sociable behavior. Mice reared in a standard cage, by contrast, not dissimilar, you might say, from a prison cell, have dramatically lower levels of new neurons in the brain.
Može li se mozak promeniti? Preko 100 godina, neuroanatomi i kasnije neurolozi držali su se stanovišta da nakon početnog razvoja u detinjstvu, nove moždane ćelije ne mogu nastati u odraslom ljudskom mozgu. Mozak se samo može izmeniti u izvesnim postavljenim granicama. To je bila dogma. Ali onda, '90-ih godina, istraživanja su počela da pokazuju, sledivši Elizabet Guld na Prinstonu i druge, studije su počele da pokazuju dokaze neurogeneze, rođenja novih moždanih ćelija u odraslom mozgu sisara, najpre u olfaktornom delu, koji je odgovoran za naše čulo mirisa, zatim u hipokampusu vezano za kratkoročno pamćenje, i najzad u samoj amigdali. Da bih razumeo kako ovaj proces funkcioniše, ostavio sam psihopate i priključio se laboratoriji na Oksfordu specijalizovanoj za učenje i razvoj. Umesto psihopata, proučavao sam miševe, jer se isti obrazac moždanih reakcija javlja kod mnogih različitih vrsta društvenih životinja. Ako uzgajate miša u standardnom kavezu, kutiji za cipele, u suštini, sa pamučnom vunom, samog bez mnogo stimulacije, ne samo da on neće napredovati, već će često razviti čudna ponašanja koja se ponavljaju. Ova prirodno druželjubiva životinja će izgubiti svoju sposobnost da se povezuje sa drugim miševima, postajući čak i agresivna kada se iznese pred njih. Sa druge strane, miševi odgajani u onome što nazivamo obogaćujuća sredina, u velikom staništu sa drugim miševima sa točkovima i merdevinama i oblastima za istraživanje, pokazivaće neurogenezu, rođenje novih moždanih ćelija, i kao što smo pokazali, takođe imaju bolja postignuća na mnogim zadacima učenja i pamćenja. Oni ne razviju moralnost do tog nivoa da prenose kese iz kupovine starim miševima preko ulice, ali poboljšana sredina dovodi do zdravog, društvenog ponašanja. Miševi odgajani u standardnom kavezu, nasuprot tome, nije daleko, može se reći, od zatvorske ćelije, imaju drastično niže nivoe neurona u mozgu.
It is now clear that the amygdala of mammals, including primates like us, can show neurogenesis. In some areas of the brain, more than 20 percent of cells are newly formed. We're just beginning to understand what exact function these cells have, but what it implies is that the brain is capable of extraordinary change way into adulthood. However, our brains are also exquisitely sensitive to stress in our environment. Stress hormones, glucocorticoids, released by the brain, suppress the growth of these new cells. The more stress, the less brain development, which in turn causes less adaptability and causes higher stress levels. This is the interplay between nature and nurture in real time in front of our eyes. When you think about it, it is ironic that our current solution for people with stressed amygdalae is to place them in an environment that actually inhibits any chance of further growth. Of course, imprisonment is a necessary part of the criminal justice system and of protecting society. Our research does not suggest that criminals should submit their MRI scans as evidence in court and get off the hook because they've got a faulty amygdala. The evidence is actually the other way. Because our brains are capable of change, we need to take responsibility for our actions, and they need to take responsibility for their rehabilitation. One way such rehabilitation might work is through restorative justice programs. Here victims, if they choose to participate, and perpetrators meet face to face in safe, structured encounters, and the perpetrator is encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, and the victim plays an active role in the process. In such a setting, the perpetrator can see, perhaps for the first time, the victim as a real person with thoughts and feelings and a genuine emotional response. This stimulates the amygdala and may be a more effective rehabilitative practice than simple incarceration. Such programs won't work for everyone, but for many, it could be a way to break the frozen sea within.
Sada je jasno da amigdala sisara, uključujući primate kao što smo mi, može pokazati neurogenezu. U nekim oblastima mozga, više od 20 procenata ćelija su novoformirane. Tek počinjemo da razumemo kakve tačno funkcije ove ćelije imaju, ali to nagoveštava da je mozak u stanju na izuzetnu promenu daleko u odraslom dobu. Međutim, naš mozak je takođe izuzetno osetljiv na stres u našoj okolini. Hormoni stresa, glukokortikoidi, koje ispušta mozak, suzbijaju rast novih ćelija. Što više stresa, to manje razvoja mozga, što zauzvrat proizvodi manje prilagodljivosti i stvara više nivoe stresa. Ovo je međuigra urođenog i stečenog uživo pred našim očima. Kada razmislite o tome, ironično je da je naše trenutno rešenje za ljude sa amigdalom pod stresom da ih smestimo u sredinu koja zapravo sputava svaku šansu daljeg razvoja. Naravno, stavljanje u zatvor je neophodan deo kriminalnog sistema pravde i zaštite društva. Naše istraživanje ne ukazuje da kriminalci treba da dostave svoje MRI snimke kao dokaz na sudu i izvuku se jer imaju amigdalu sa greškom. Dokaz je zapravo na drugoj strani. Pošto je naš mozak u stanju da se promeni, moramo da preuzmemo odgovornost za svoje postupke, i oni treba da preuzmu odgovornost za svoju rehabilitaciju. Jedan način na koji bi takva rehabilitacija mogla delovati je kroz programe restorativne pravde. Tu se žrtve, ako odluče da učestvuju, i počinioci sreću licem u lice u bezbednim, strukturisanim susretima, i počinilac se podstiče da preuzme odgovornost za svoje postupke, a žrtva igra aktivnu ulogu u procesu. U takvoj postavci, počinilac može videti, možda po prvi put, žrtvu kao stvarnu osobu sa mislima i osećanjima i istinskim emotivnim reakcijama. Ovo stimuliše amigdalu i može biti efektivnija rehabilitaciona praksa od jednostavnog zatočenja. Takvi programi neće delovati kod svih, ali za mnoge, to bi mogao biti način da se otopi ledeno srce.
So what can we do now? How can we apply this knowledge? I'd like to leave you with three lessons that I learned. The first thing that I learned was that we need to change our mindset. Since Wormwood Scrubs was built 130 years ago, society has advanced in virtually every aspect, in the way we run our schools, our hospitals. Yet the moment we speak about prisons, it's as though we're back in Dickensian times, if not medieval times. For too long, I believe, we've allowed ourselves to be persuaded of the false notion that human nature cannot change, and as a society, it's costing us dearly. We know that the brain is capable of extraordinary change, and the best way to achieve that, even in adults, is to change and modulate our environment.
Pa šta možemo sada da učinimo? Kako možemo da primenimo ovo znanje? Želeo bih da vas ostavim sa tri lekcije koje sam naučio. Prva stvar koju sam naučio je da moramo da menjamo svoj način razmišljanja. Otkad je Vormvud Skrabs izgrađen pre 130 godina, društvo je napredovalo u gotovo svakom aspektu, u načinu na koji upravljamo školama, bolnicama. Ipak, čim progovorimo o zatvorima, kao da smo se vratili u vreme Dikensa, ako ne i srednji vek. Predugo smo, smatram, dozvolili sebi da budemo ubeđeni u lažnu ideju da se ljudska priroda ne može promeniti, i kao društvo, to nas skupo košta. Znamo da je mozak u stanju za izuzetne promene, i najbolji način za postizanje toga, čak i kod odraslih, jeste da promenimo i prilagodimo našu okolinu.
The second thing I have learned is that we need to create an alliance of people who believe that science is integral to bringing about social change. It's easy enough for a neuroscientist to place a high-security inmate in an MRI scanner. Well actually, that turns out not to be so easy, but ultimately what we want to show is whether we're able to reduce the reoffending rates. In order to answer complex questions like that, we need people of different backgrounds -- lab-based scientists and clinicians, social workers and policy makers, philanthropists and human rights activists — to work together.
Druga stvar koju sam naučio je da moramo da stvorimo savez sa ljudima koji veruju da je nauka ključna za izazivanje društvenih promena. Lako je za neurologa da smesti zatvorenika sa najvećim obezbeđenjem pod MRI skener. Zapravo, ispostavilo se da to nije tako lako, ali u krajnjoj liniji ono što želimo da pokažemo je to da li smo u mogućnosti da smanjimo stope ponovnih prekršaja. Da bismo odgovorili na tako kompleksno pitanje, potrebni su nam ljudi različitog obrazovanja - laboratorijski naučnici i kliničari, socijalni radnici i donosioci odluka, filantropi i aktivisti za ljudska prava - da rade zajedno.
Finally, I believe we need to change our own amygdalae, because this issue goes to the heart not just of who Joe is, but who we are. We need to change our view of Joe as someone wholly irredeemable, because if we see Joe as wholly irredeemable, how is he going to see himself as any different? In another decade, Joe will be released from Wormwood Scrubs. Will he be among the 70 percent of inmates who end up reoffending and returning to the prison system? Wouldn't it be better if, while serving his sentence, Joe was able to train his amygdala, which would stimulate the growth of new brain cells and connections, so that he will be able to face the world once he gets released? Surely, that would be in the interest of all of us.
Konačno, verujem da moramo da promenimo sopstvene amigdale, jer ovo pitanje ide u srž ne samo toga ko je Džo, već i ko smo mi. Moramo da promenimo naše sagledavanje Džoa kao nekog potpuno beznadežnog, jer ako vidimo Džoa kao potpuno beznadežnog, kako će on sebe videti drugačije? U sledećoj deceniji, Džo će biti pušten iz Vormvud Skrabsa. Da li će on biti među 70 odsto zatvorenika koji će završiti kao ponovni počinioci i vratiti se u zatvor? Zar ne bi bilo bolje kada bi, tokom služenja svoje kazne, Džo mogao da vežba svoju amigdalu, što bi stimulisalo rast novih moždanih ćelija i veza, tako da bi mogao da se suoči sa svetom kada bude pušten? To bi sigurno bilo u interesu svih nas.
(Applause) Thank you. (Applause)
(Aplauz) Hvala vam. (Aplauz)