We're here today to announce the first synthetic cell, a cell made by starting with the digital code in the computer, building the chromosome from four bottles of chemicals, assembling that chromosome in yeast, transplanting it into a recipient bacterial cell and transforming that cell into a new bacterial species. So this is the first self-replicating species that we've had on the planet whose parent is a computer. It also is the first species to have its own website encoded in its genetic code. But we'll talk more about the watermarks in a minute.
Ovde smo danas da objavimo prvu sintetičku ćeliju, ćeliju napravljenu počevši od digitalnog koda u kompjuteru, čiji je hromozom nastao iz bočice hemikalija, sakupljen u kvascu, a potom prebačen u primaoca - ćeliju bakterije koja je potom transformisala tu ćeliju u novu vrstu bakterija. Tako je ovo prva samo-reprodukujuća vrsta koju smo ikada imali ma planeti a čiji je roditelj kompjuter. To je takođe i prva vrsta koja ima sopstveni vebsajt šifrovan u genetički kod. Ali pričaćemo više o vodenim žigovima za koji minut.
This is a project that had its inception 15 years ago when our team then -- we called the institute TIGR -- was involved in sequencing the first two genomes in history. We did Haemophilus influenzae and then the smallest genome of a self-replicating organism, that of Mycoplasma genitalium. And as soon as we had these two sequences we thought, if this is supposed to be the smallest genome of a self-replicating species, could there be even a smaller genome? Could we understand the basis of cellular life at the genetic level? It's been a 15-year quest just to get to the starting point now to be able to answer those questions, because it's very difficult to eliminate multiple genes from a cell. You can only do them one at a time. We decided early on that we had to take a synthetic route, even though nobody had been there before, to see if we could synthesize a bacterial chromosome so we could actually vary the gene content to understand the essential genes for life. That started our 15-year quest to get here.
Ovo je projekat koji je započet pre 15 godina kada je naš tim -- tada znan kao Institut TIGR -- bio uključen u sekvencioniranje prva dva genoma u istoriji. Radili smo sa Haemophilus influenzae (vrsta aerobne bakterije) i potom sa najmanjim genomom samo-reprodukujućeg organizma, a to je Mycoplasma genitalium. (namanja poznata bakterija, od skoro razmatrana i kao organizam sa najamnjim genomom) I čim smo imali te dve sekvence, pomislili smo, ako se za ovo pretpostavlja da je najmanji genom samo-reprodukujuće vrste, može li biti da postoji još i manji genom? Možemo li razumeti osnove ćelijskog života na genetičkom nivou? Bilo je to petnaestogodišnje traganje samo da bismo stigli do startne pozicije, da bismo bili u stanju da damo odgovore na ova pitanja. Veoma je teško eliminisati višestruke gene iz ćelije, možete uraditi samo jedan po jedan. Na početku smo već odlučili da moramo ići sintetičkom rutom, iako niko na njoj do sada nije bio, kako vidimo da li je moguće sintetizovati bakterijski hromozom, da bismo uopšte mogli varirati genetski sadržaj da bismo razumeli osnovu gena za život. Tako je krenulo naše petnaestogodišnje traganje koje nas je dovelo ovde.
But before we did the first experiments, we actually asked Art Caplan's team at the University of Pennsylvania to undertake a review of what the risks, the challenges, the ethics around creating new species in the laboratory were because it hadn't been done before. They spent about two years reviewing that independently and published their results in Science in 1999. Ham and I took two years off as a side project to sequence the human genome, but as soon as that was done we got back to the task at hand.
Pre nego što smo započeli prve eksperimente, zapitali smo tim Arta Kaplana, koji je tada bio na Univerzitetu Pensilvanija, da preuzme proces revizije u pogledu rizika, izazova, etičke pozadine vezane za kreiranje nove vrste u laboratoriji jer do tada to nije bilo rađeno. Proveli su oko dve godine nezavisno ispitujući to i objavili rezultate u "Nauci" 1999. Hem i ja smo uzeli dve godine slobodno da bi smo sa strane radili na projektu sekvencioniranja ljudskih genoma, ali čim je to bilo gotovo, vratili smo se na prvobitni zadatak.
In 2002, we started a new institute, the Institute for Biological Energy Alternatives, where we set out two goals: One, to understand the impact of our technology on the environment, and how to understand the environment better, and two, to start down this process of making synthetic life to understand basic life. In 2003, we published our first success. So Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison developed some new methods for making error-free DNA at a small level. Our first task was a 5,000-letter code bacteriophage, a virus that attacks only E. coli. So that was the phage phi X 174, which was chosen for historical reasons. It was the first DNA phage, DNA virus, DNA genome that was actually sequenced. So once we realized that we could make 5,000-base pair viral-sized pieces, we thought, we at least have the means then to try and make serially lots of these pieces to be able to eventually assemble them together to make this mega base chromosome. So, substantially larger than we even thought we would go initially.
2002. godine, započeli smo sa novom institucijom, Institut za Biološke Energetske Alternative, gde smo odredili dva cilja. Prvi, razumeti uticaj naše tehnologije na sredinu, i kako bolje razumeti sredinu. I drugi, da započnemo ovaj proces kreiranja sintetičkog života kako bi se bolje razumele osnove života. 2003. godine, objavili smo prve uspehe. Tako su Hem Smit i Klajd Hačison razvili neke nove metode pravljenja DNK čije su greške svedene na najniži nivo. Naš prvi zadatak je bio bakteriofag koda veličine 5000 slova, virus koji napada samo E. coli. Tako da je to bila faga "phi X 174", koja je izabrana iz istorijskih razloga. To je bila prva DNK faga, DNK virus, DNK genom koji je sekvencioniran. Tako da kada smo jednom shvatili da je moguće napraviti 5000 bazičnih parova delova veličine virusa, pomislili smo, imamo makar sredstva da se trudimo i pravimo serijski mnogo ovakvih delova, i da ćemo eventualno biti u mogućnosti da ih sakupimo kako bi načinili mega-bazni hromozom. Dakle, znatno veći nego što smo na početku mislili da će biti.
There were several steps to this. There were two sides: We had to solve the chemistry for making large DNA molecules, and we had to solve the biological side of how, if we had this new chemical entity, how would we boot it up, activate it in a recipient cell. We had two teams working in parallel: one team on the chemistry, and the other on trying to be able to transplant entire chromosomes to get new cells. When we started this out, we thought the synthesis would be the biggest problem, which is why we chose the smallest genome.
Postojalo je nekoliko koraka do ovoga. Postojale su dve strane. Morali smo da rešimo hemijski deo pravljenje velikih DNK molekula, i morali smo da rešimo biološku stranu kako, ukoliko bismo imali taj novi hemijski entitet, kako bismo to pokrenuli, aktivirali, u prijemnoj ćeliji. Tako smo imali dva tima koja su radila paralelno, jedan na hemiji, i druga dva koja su pokušavala da omoguće transplantaciju čitavog hromozoma da bi se dobila nova ćelija. Kada smo započeli sa ovim, mislili smo da će nam sinteza biti najveći problem, zbog čega smo izabrali najmanji genom.
And some of you have noticed that we switched from the smallest genome to a much larger one. And we can walk through the reasons for that, but basically the small cell took on the order of one to two months to get results from, whereas the larger, faster-growing cell takes only two days. So there's only so many cycles we could go through in a year at six weeks per cycle. And you should know that basically 99, probably 99 percent plus of our experiments failed. So this was a debugging, problem-solving scenario from the beginning because there was no recipe of how to get there.
I neki od vas su primetili da smo se prebacili sa najmanjeg genoma na jedan prilično velik. I možemo proći kroz razloge za to, ali u suštini, za malu ćeliju je potrebno jedan do dva meseca da bi se dobili rezultati, dok je velikoj, brže rastućoj ćeliji potrebno svega dva dana. Dakle postoji toliko ciklusa kroz koje je moguće proći za godinu dana, sa šest nedelja po ciklusu. I trebalo bi da znate to, 99, verovatno 99 procenata i više naših eksperimenata je bilo neuspešno. Tako da je ovo bilo otklanjanje grešaka, scenario rešavanja problema od početka zato što nije postojao recept kako stići do tamo.
So, one of the most important publications we had was in 2007. Carole Lartigue led the effort to actually transplant a bacterial chromosome from one bacteria to another. I think philosophically, that was one of the most important papers that we've ever done because it showed how dynamic life was. And we knew, once that worked, that we actually had a chance if we could make the synthetic chromosomes to do the same with those. We didn't know that it was going to take us several years more to get there.
Jedan od najvažnijih publikacija koje smo imali bila je 2007. godine. Kerol Lartig je vodila napore da se transplatuje bakterijski hromozom iz jedne bakterije u drugu. Mislim, filozofski, da je jedna od najvažnijih objava koje smo ikada uradili jer pokazuje koliko je život zapravo dinamičan. I znali smo, jednom kada je to proradilo, da smo zapravo imali šansu, ukoliko bismo napravili sintetički hromozom da uradi isto to. Nismo znali da će nam trebati više od nekoliko godina da stignemo do tamo.
In 2008, we reported the complete synthesis of the Mycoplasma genitalium genome, a little over 500,000 letters of genetic code, but we have not yet succeeded in booting up that chromosome. We think in part, because of its slow growth and, in part, cells have all kinds of unique defense mechanisms to keep these events from happening. It turned out the cell that we were trying to transplant into had a nuclease, an enzyme that chews up DNA on its surface, and was happy to eat the synthetic DNA that we gave it and never got transplantations. But at the time, that was the largest molecule of a defined structure that had been made.
2008. godine, snimili smo kompletnu sintezu "Mycoplasma genitalium" genoma, nešto preko 500 000 slova genetičkog koda, ali još nismo uspeli da pokrenemo taj hromozom. Mislimo, delimice, da je to zbog sporog rasta, i delom, što ćelije imaju jedinstvene odbrambene mehanizme koji sprečavaju da se ovakvi događaji dese. Ispostavilo se da je ćelija na kojoj je trebal izvršiti transplataciju imala nukleozu, enzim koji izbacuje DNK na svoju površinu i bila je "srećna" što može pojesti sintetički DNK koji smo joj dali, te tako transplataciju nismo ni dobili. Ali u to vreme, to je bio najveći molekul definisane strukture koji je ikada bio napravljen.
And so both sides were progressing, but part of the synthesis had to be accomplished or was able to be accomplished using yeast, putting the fragments in yeast and yeast would assemble these for us. It's an amazing step forward, but we had a problem because now we had the bacterial chromosomes growing in yeast. So in addition to doing the transplant, we had to find out how to get a bacterial chromosome out of the eukaryotic yeast into a form where we could transplant it into a recipient cell.
Tako su obe strane napredovale, ali deo sinteze je morao biti postignut ili bar bio u stanju da bude ostvaren, kosristeći kvasac, stavljajući fragmente u njega, i on bi izvršio prikupljanje umesto nas. To je bio neverovatan korak napred, ali imali smo problem jer smo imali bakterijski hromozom koji raste u kvascu. U cilju izvođenja transplantacije, morali smo da otkrijemo kako da dobijemo bakterijski hromozom iz eukariotskog kvasca, u formi u kojoj bi ga mogli transplantovati u prijemnu ćeliju.
So our team developed new techniques for actually growing, cloning entire bacterial chromosomes in yeast. So we took the same mycoides genome that Carole had initially transplanted, and we grew that in yeast as an artificial chromosome. And we thought this would be a great test bed for learning how to get chromosomes out of yeast and transplant them. When we did these experiments, though, we could get the chromosome out of yeast but it wouldn't transplant and boot up a cell. That little issue took the team two years to solve.
Tako je naš tim razvio nove tehnike za rast, kloniranje celih bakterijskih hromozoma u kvascu. Uzeli smo iste mikoidne genome koje je Kerol prvobitno transplantovala, i stavili smo ih u kvasac da rastu kao veštački hromozom. Smatrali smo da će ovo biti sjajan test za otkrivanje kako izvaditi hromozome iz kvasca i transplantovati ih. Kada smo pak izveli ove eksperimente, mogli smo izvući hromozom iz kvasca ali on se nije mogao transplantovati i pokrenuti ćeliju. Za rešenje te male stavke bile su potrebne dve godine.
It turns out, the DNA in the bacterial cell was actually methylated, and the methylation protects it from the restriction enzyme, from digesting the DNA. So what we found is if we took the chromosome out of yeast and methylated it, we could then transplant it. Further advances came when the team removed the restriction enzyme genes from the recipient capricolum cell. And once we had done that, now we can take naked DNA out of yeast and transplant it.
Ispostavilo se da je DNK bekterijske ćelije metilizovana (metilizacija - proces nadogradnje metil grupe na DNK spiralu) a metilizacija štiti ćeliju od restrikcionog enzima, od proždiranja DNK. Ono što smo, dakle, otkrili je to da ako uzmemo hromozom iz kvasca i metilizujemo ga, tada bismo ga mogli transplantovati. Dalji napredak je došao kada je tim odstranio restrikcione enzime iz prijemne ćelije. I jednom kada smo to uradili, mogli smo uzeti ogoljeni DNK iz kvasca i transplatovati ga.
So last fall when we published the results of that work in Science, we all became overconfident and were sure we were only a few weeks away from being able to now boot up a chromosome out of yeast. Because of the problems with Mycoplasma genitalium and its slow growth about a year and a half ago, we decided to synthesize the much larger chromosome, the mycoides chromosome, knowing that we had the biology worked out on that for transplantation. And Dan led the team for the synthesis of this over one-million-base pair chromosome. But it turned out it wasn't going to be as simple in the end, and it set us back three months because we had one error out of over a million base pairs in that sequence.
Dakle, prošle jeseni, kada smo objavili rezultate našeg rada u "Nauci", svi smo postali previše samopouzdani i bili uvereni da smo samo nekoliko nedelja daleko od toga da sada pokrenemo hromozom iz kvasca. Zbog problema sa Mycoplasma genitalium i njenim sporim rastom, pre oko godinu i po dana odlučili smo da sintetizujemo mnogo veći hromozom, mikoidni hromozom, znajući da imamo biologe koji rade na tome za transplantaciju. Den je vodio tim za sintezu ovog hromozoma sa preko milion baznih parova. Ali ispostavilo se da neće biti tako jednostavno na kraju. Vratili smo se tri meseca unazad jer smo imali jednu grešku u tih milion baznih parova.
So the team developed new debugging software, where we could test each synthetic fragment to see if it would grow in a background of wild type DNA. And we found that 10 out of the 11 100,000-base pair pieces we synthesized were completely accurate and compatible with a life-forming sequence. We narrowed it down to one fragment; we sequenced it and found just one base pair had been deleted in an essential gene. So accuracy is essential. There's parts of the genome where it cannot tolerate even a single error, and then there's parts of the genome where we can put in large blocks of DNA, as we did with the watermarks, and it can tolerate all kinds of errors. So it took about three months to find that error and repair it. And then early one morning, at 6 a.m. we got a text from Dan saying that, now, the first blue colonies existed.
Tako je tim razvio novi softver za ispravljanje grešaka, gde smo mogli testirati svaki sintetički fragment da vidimo da li će rasti u pozadini divljeg tipa DNK. I pronašli smo da je 10 od 11 delova 100 000 baznih parova koje smo sintetizovali bilo potpuno ispravno i kompatibilno sa sekvencom za formiranje života. Suzili smo to na jedan fragment. Sekvencionirali i pronašli da je samo jedan bazni par bio izbrisan u osnovnom genu. Tako da je tačnost osnova. Postoje delovi genoma gde se ne može tolerisati niti najmanja greška, i postoje delovi genoma gde možemo postaviti velike blokove DNK, kao što smo učinili sa vodenim žigovima, i tu se mogu tolerisati različite vrste grešaka. Tako je nama bilo potrebno oko tri meseca da pronađemo tu grešku i popravimo je. I onda, rano jednog jutra, oko 6 sati, dobili smo poruku od Dena u kojoj je pisalo da su prve plave kolonije opstale.
So, it's been a long route to get here: 15 years from the beginning. We felt one of the tenets of this field was to make absolutely certain we could distinguish synthetic DNA from natural DNA. Early on, when you're working in a new area of science, you have to think about all the pitfalls and things that could lead you to believe that you had done something when you hadn't, and, even worse, leading others to believe it. So, we thought the worst problem would be a single molecule contamination of the native chromosome, leading us to believe that we actually had created a synthetic cell, when it would have been just a contaminant.
Bio je to dug put da bi se stiglo do tamo -- 15 godina od kako smo počeli. Osećali smo se, jedno od načela ove oblasti je bilo da se uverimo da možemo razdvojiti sintetički DNK od prirodnog DNK. Na početku, ukoliko radite u novim oblastima nauke, morate da mislite na sve zamke i stvari koje bi vas mogle navesti da poverujete da ste uradili nešto, a kada niste, i što je još gore, da i drugi poveruju u to. Tako smo mi mislili da će najgori problem biti jednostruka molekularna kontaminacija osnovnog hromozoma, koja bi učinila da poverujemo da smo zapravo stvorili sintetičku ćeliju, a ono je bila samo kontaminacija.
So early on, we developed the notion of putting in watermarks in the DNA to absolutely make clear that the DNA was synthetic. And the first chromosome we built in 2008 -- the 500,000-base pair one -- we simply assigned the names of the authors of the chromosome into the genetic code, but it was using just amino acid single letter translations, which leaves out certain letters of the alphabet. So the team actually developed a new code within the code within the code. So it's a new code for interpreting and writing messages in DNA. Now, mathematicians have been hiding and writing messages in the genetic code for a long time, but it's clear they were mathematicians and not biologists because, if you write long messages with the code that the mathematicians developed, it would more than likely lead to new proteins being synthesized with unknown functions.
Zbog toga smo ranije razvili ideju stavljanja vodenih žigova u DNK da bismo sa sigurnošću raščistili da je DNK zbilja sintetička. I prvi hromozom koji smo stvorili, 2008. godine, onaj sa 500 000 baznih parova, smo jednostavno označili imenima tvoraca hromozoma u genetički kod. Ali to je bila upotreba samo amino kiseline prevod od jednog slova, što nam izostavlja određena slova alfabeta. Tako je tim razvio novi kod unutar koda unutar koda. Tako je to bio novi kod za interpretaciju i pisanje poruka unutar DNK. Sada, matematičari su se krili i pisali poruke u genetičkom kodu dugo vremena, ali očito je da su oni ipak bili matematičari, a ne biolozi jer, ukoliko pišete dugačku poruku kodom koji su razvili matematičari, više je nego očigledno da bi vas to odvelo sintezi novih proteina sa nepoznatim funkcijama.
So the code that Mike Montague and the team developed actually puts frequent stop codons, so it's a different alphabet but allows us to use the entire English alphabet with punctuation and numbers. So, there are four major watermarks all over 1,000 base pairs of genetic code. The first one actually contains within it this code for interpreting the rest of the genetic code. So in the remaining information, in the watermarks, contain the names of, I think it's 46 different authors and key contributors to getting the project to this stage. And we also built in a website address so that if somebody decodes the code within the code within the code, they can send an email to that address. So it's clearly distinguishable from any other species, having 46 names in it, its own web address. And we added three quotations, because with the first genome we were criticized for not trying to say something more profound than just signing the work.
Kod koji su Majk Montegi i tim razvili zapravo ubacuje učestale prekid - kodove. Tako da je to jedan drugačiji alfabet, ali nam dozvoljava da koristimo kompletnu englesku abecedu sa interpunkcijama i brojevima. Tako, postoje 4 ključna vodena žiga od svih hiljada baznih parova genetičkog koda. Prvi u sebi sadrži kod za interpretaciju ostatka genetičkog koda. U ostatku informacija, u vodenim žigovima sadržana su imena, ja mislim, 46 različitih autora i ključnih osoba koje su dale svoj doprinos da bi se projekat doveo u ovu fazu. Takođe smo izradili vebsajt adresu, da bi, ukoliko neko dekodira kod, kod unutar koda, mogao poslati e-mail na tu adresu. Tako da je očigledno različit od bilo koje druge vrste, i ima 46 imena u njemu, i svoju sopstvenu veb adresu. I dodali smo tri citata jer, sa prvim genomom, bili smo kritikovani da se ne trudimo da saopštimo nešto dubokoumno nego se samo potpisujemo.
So we won't give the rest of the code, but we will give the three quotations. The first is, "To live, to err, to fall, to triumph and to recreate life out of life." It's a James Joyce quote. The second quotation is, "See things not as they are, but as they might be." It's a quote from the "American Prometheus" book on Robert Oppenheimer. And the last one is a Richard Feynman quote: "What I cannot build, I cannot understand." So, because this is as much a philosophical advance as a technical advance in science, we tried to deal with both the philosophical and the technical side.
Tako nećemo dati ostatak koda, ali ćemo navesti ova tri citata. Prvi je, "Živeti, grešiti, pasti, trijumfovati, i stvarati život iz života." To je citat Džejms Džojsa. Drugi citat je, "Videti stvari, ne kakve one jesu, već kakve bi mogle biti." To je citat iz "Američkog Prometeja" knjige o Robertu Openhajmeru. I poslednji citat je od Ričarda Fejnmana. "Šta ne mogu napraviti, ja ne mogu razumeti." Iz razloga što je ovo jednako filozofski napredak kao i tehnički u nauci, potrudili smo se da obuhvatimo i filozofsku i tehničku stranu.
The last thing I want to say before turning it over to questions is that the extensive work that we've done -- asking for ethical review, pushing the envelope on that side as well as the technical side -- this has been broadly discussed in the scientific community, in the policy community and at the highest levels of the federal government. Even with this announcement, as we did in 2003 -- that work was funded by the Department of Energy, so the work was reviewed at the level of the White House, trying to decide whether to classify the work or publish it. And they came down on the side of open publication, which is the right approach -- we've briefed the White House, we've briefed members of Congress, we've tried to take and push the policy issues in parallel with the scientific advances.
Poslednja stvar koju želim da kažem pre nego pređemo na pitanja jeste da ovaj obiman posao koji smo uradili, traženje etičke provere, izlaženje iz okvira na toj strani jednako kao i na tehničkoj, to je široko diskutovano među naučnim krugovima, u pravnoj zajednici i na najvišim nivoima savezne vlade. Čak i sa ovom objavom, kao što smo uradili 2003. -- taj rad je bio pod pokroviteljstvom Odseka za Energiju -- tako je projekat bio pod revizijom najviših nivoa Bele Kuće, koji su doneli odluku da li da rad bude poverljiv ili da se objavi. I doneli su odluku da se objavi, što je ispravan pristup. Napravili smo dopis Beloj Kući. Takođe i dopis kongresmenima. Pokušali smo da vodimo računa o pravnim pitanjima paralelno sa naučnim pristupom.
So with that, I would like to open it first to the floor for questions. Yes, in the back.
Tako da sa ovim, želeo bih da otvorim deo za pitanja. Da, vi pozadi.
Reporter: Could you explain, in layman's terms, how significant a breakthrough this is please?
Reporter: Možete li laički objasniti koliko je ovo značajan prodor?
Craig Venter: Can we explain how significant this is? I'm not sure we're the ones that should be explaining how significant it is. It's significant to us. Perhaps it's a giant philosophical change in how we view life. We actually view it as a baby step in terms of, it's taken us 15 years to be able to do the experiment we wanted to do 15 years ago on understanding life at its basic level. But we actually believe this is going to be a very powerful set of tools and we're already starting in numerous avenues to use this tool.
Kreg Venter: Možemo li objasniti koliko je ovo značajno? Nisam siguran da smo mi prave osobe koje bi trebalo da objašnjavaju koliko je ovo značajno. Značajno je nama. Možda je ovo ogromna filozofska promena u načinu na koji posmatramo život. Mi ovo posmatramo kao prvi dečji korak, za koji nam je trebalo 15 godina, da bismo bili u mogućnosti da napravimo eksperiment koji smo želeli pre 15 godina kako bismo razumeli osnove života. Ali mi zapravo verujemo da će ovo biti veoma moćan skup alata. I mi već započinjemo u brojnim poljima da koristimo ovaj alat.
We have, at the Institute, ongoing funding now from NIH in a program with Novartis to try and use these new synthetic DNA tools to perhaps make the flu vaccine that you might get next year. Because instead of taking weeks to months to make these, Dan's team can now make these in less than 24 hours. So when you see how long it took to get an H1N1 vaccine out, we think we can shorten that process quite substantially. In the vaccine area, Synthetic Genomics and the Institute are forming a new vaccine company because we think these tools can affect vaccines to diseases that haven't been possible to date, things where the viruses rapidly evolve, such with rhinovirus. Wouldn't it be nice to have something that actually blocked common colds? Or, more importantly, HIV, where the virus evolves so quickly the vaccines that are made today can't keep up with those evolutionary changes.
Na institutu je u toku program sa Novartisom, koji finansira NIH (Nacionalni institut zdravlja), i koji pokušava da ovaj novi sintetički DNK alat upotrebi za kreiranje vakcine protiv gripa koju ćete možda dobiti iduće godine. I umesto nedelja i meseci koji bi vam bili potrebni za spravljanje ove vakcine, Denov tim sada može to odraditi za manje od 24 časa. I kada pogledate koliko je vremena bilo potrebno da se napravi vakcina protiv H1N1, smatramo da možemo skratiti taj proces i to prilično značajno. U području vakcina, "Sintetički Genomi" i Institut formiraju novu kompaniju za vakcine jer smatramo da ovaj alat može uticati na pravljenje vakcina protiv bolesti za koje nije bilo moguće ni precizirati datum nastanka, kao kod virusa koji se brzo razvijaju, kao što je rino-virus. Zar ne bi bilo sjajno da imamo nešto što može blokirati uobičajenu groznicu? Ili, što je još važnije, HIV, gde se virus razvija toliko brzo, da vakcine koje su napravljene danas ne mogu pratiti tolike evolutivne promene.
Also, at Synthetic Genomics, we've been working on major environmental issues. I think this latest oil spill in the Gulf is a reminder. We can't see CO2 -- we depend on scientific measurements for it and we see the beginning results of having too much of it -- but we can see pre-CO2 now floating on the waters and contaminating the beaches in the Gulf. We need some alternatives for oil. We have a program with Exxon Mobile to try and develop new strains of algae that can efficiently capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from concentrated sources, make new hydrocarbons that can go into their refineries to make normal gasoline and diesel fuel out of CO2.
Takođe, u "Sintetičkim Genomima", radimo i na osnovnim pitanjima prirodnog okruženja. Mislim da je ova poslednja naftna mrlja u meksičkom zalivu dobar podsetnik. Ne možemo videti CO2; zavisimo od naučnih merenja CO2, i vidimo rezultate toga što ga imamo previše. Ali sada možemo videti pre - CO2 koji pliva u vodi i koji zagađuje plaže. Potrebne su nam neke alternative za naftu. Imamo program sa "Exxon Mobile" sa kojim pokušavamo da razvijemo nove vrste algi koje efikasno hvataju ugljen dioksid iz atmosfere ili koncentrovanih izvora, i prave novi ugljovodonik koji može ići direktno u njihove rafinerije i od kog se pravi benzin i dizel gorivo od CO2.
Those are just a couple of the approaches and directions that we're taking.
Ovo su samo neki od pristupa i puteva kojima se krećemo.
(Applause)
(Aplauz)