We're here today to announce the first synthetic cell, a cell made by starting with the digital code in the computer, building the chromosome from four bottles of chemicals, assembling that chromosome in yeast, transplanting it into a recipient bacterial cell and transforming that cell into a new bacterial species. So this is the first self-replicating species that we've had on the planet whose parent is a computer. It also is the first species to have its own website encoded in its genetic code. But we'll talk more about the watermarks in a minute.
Ovdje smo danas kako bi smo najavili prvu sintetičku stanicu, stanicu stvorenu počevši s digitalnim kodom u kompjuteru, gradeći kromosom iz četiri bočice kemikalija, postavljajući taj kromosom u kvasac, premještajući ga u primalačku bakterijsku stanicu i pretvarajući tu stanicu u novu bakterijsku vrstu. Ovo je prva samoumnožavajuća vrsta koja postoji na planetu čiji roditelj je kompjuter. To je također prva vrsta koja ima svoju web stranicu kodiranu u svom genetičkom kodu. Pričat ćemo više o vodenim žigovima za koju minutu.
This is a project that had its inception 15 years ago when our team then -- we called the institute TIGR -- was involved in sequencing the first two genomes in history. We did Haemophilus influenzae and then the smallest genome of a self-replicating organism, that of Mycoplasma genitalium. And as soon as we had these two sequences we thought, if this is supposed to be the smallest genome of a self-replicating species, could there be even a smaller genome? Could we understand the basis of cellular life at the genetic level? It's been a 15-year quest just to get to the starting point now to be able to answer those questions, because it's very difficult to eliminate multiple genes from a cell. You can only do them one at a time. We decided early on that we had to take a synthetic route, even though nobody had been there before, to see if we could synthesize a bacterial chromosome so we could actually vary the gene content to understand the essential genes for life. That started our 15-year quest to get here.
Ovaj projekt je započet Prije 15 godina kada se naš tim tada- zvali smo ga TIGR institut - bavio sekvenciranjem Prva dva genoma u povijesti. Uradili smo Haemophilus influenzae, a zatim najmanji genom samoreproducirajućeg organizma, a to je Mycoplasma genitalium. I nakon što smo dobili ove dvije sekvence pomislili smo, ako bi ovo trebao biti najmanji genom samoumnožavajuće vrste, može li postojati još manji genom? Možemo li razumjeti osnove staničnog života na genetičkoj razini? Bio je to 15-godišnji pothvat samo kako bismo dospjeli na početnu točku kako bi mogli odgovoriti na ta pitanja, jer je jako teško ukloniti višestruke gene iz stanice. Možete ih obraditi jednog po jednog. Ranije smo odlučili da moramo ići sintetičkim putem, čak iako nitko to nije učinio prije, da vidimo možemo li sintetizirati bakterijski kromosom tako da možemo zapravo razlikovati genski sadržaj kako bi smo razumjeli osnovne gene života. To je započelo naš 15-godišnji pothvat da dođemo do ovdje.
But before we did the first experiments, we actually asked Art Caplan's team at the University of Pennsylvania to undertake a review of what the risks, the challenges, the ethics around creating new species in the laboratory were because it hadn't been done before. They spent about two years reviewing that independently and published their results in Science in 1999. Ham and I took two years off as a side project to sequence the human genome, but as soon as that was done we got back to the task at hand.
Ali prije no što smo uradili prvi eksperiment pitali smo tim Arta Caplana sa Sveučilišta Pennsylvania da učine provjeru o tome koji su rizici, izazovi, etika oko stvaranja nove vrste u laboratoriju jer to nitko prije nije učinio. Proveli su dvije godine provjeravajući to nezavisno I objavili svoje rezultate u Science 1999. Ham i ja smo uzeli dvije godine za projekt sa strane kako bi smo sekvencionirali ljudski genom, ali čim smo završili vratili smo se glavnom zadatku.
In 2002, we started a new institute, the Institute for Biological Energy Alternatives, where we set out two goals: One, to understand the impact of our technology on the environment, and how to understand the environment better, and two, to start down this process of making synthetic life to understand basic life. In 2003, we published our first success. So Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison developed some new methods for making error-free DNA at a small level. Our first task was a 5,000-letter code bacteriophage, a virus that attacks only E. coli. So that was the phage phi X 174, which was chosen for historical reasons. It was the first DNA phage, DNA virus, DNA genome that was actually sequenced. So once we realized that we could make 5,000-base pair viral-sized pieces, we thought, we at least have the means then to try and make serially lots of these pieces to be able to eventually assemble them together to make this mega base chromosome. So, substantially larger than we even thought we would go initially.
2002 smo započeli novi institut, Institut za alternative biološke energije, gdje smo postavili dva cilja: Prvi, da razumijemo učinak naše tehnologije na okoliš, i kako da bolje razumijemo okoliš, i drugi, da započnemo proces stvaranja sintetičkog života kako bi smo razumjeli osnove života. 2003. godine smo objavili naš prvi uspjeh. Ham Smith i Clyde Hutchison su razvili neke nove metode za stvaranje DNK bez grešaka, na manjoj razini. Naš prvi zadatak je bio bakteriofag od 5000 slova koda, virus koji napada samo E.coli. To je bio fag phi X 174, koji je odabran zbog povijesnih razloga. To je bio prvi DNK fag, DNK virus, DNK genom koji je zapravo sekvencioniran. Kada smo vidjeli da možemo napraviti dio veličine virusa od 5000 parova baza, pomislili smo, bar imamo mogućnosti da onda probamo napraviti serijski mnogo ovih dijelova kako bi smo ih konačno spojili i napravili kromosom koji je velika baza. To je puno veće no što smo mislili da ćemo ići u početku.
There were several steps to this. There were two sides: We had to solve the chemistry for making large DNA molecules, and we had to solve the biological side of how, if we had this new chemical entity, how would we boot it up, activate it in a recipient cell. We had two teams working in parallel: one team on the chemistry, and the other on trying to be able to transplant entire chromosomes to get new cells. When we started this out, we thought the synthesis would be the biggest problem, which is why we chose the smallest genome.
Trebalo je proći nekoliko koraka do toga. Postojale su dvije strane: Morali smo riješiti kemiju za izgradnju velikih DNK molekula i morali smo riješiti biološku stranu kako, ako imamo ovaj novi kemijski kompleks, kako ga podići, aktivirati ga u primalačkoj stanici. Imali smo dva tima koja su radila paralelno: jedan tim na kemiji, a drugi je pokušavao omogućiti transplantaciju cijelih kromosoma kako bi smo dobili novu stanicu. Kada smo započeli, mislili smo da će sinteza biti najveći problem zbog čega smo odabrali najmanji genom.
And some of you have noticed that we switched from the smallest genome to a much larger one. And we can walk through the reasons for that, but basically the small cell took on the order of one to two months to get results from, whereas the larger, faster-growing cell takes only two days. So there's only so many cycles we could go through in a year at six weeks per cycle. And you should know that basically 99, probably 99 percent plus of our experiments failed. So this was a debugging, problem-solving scenario from the beginning because there was no recipe of how to get there.
I neki od vas su primijetili da smo se prebacili sa najmanjeg genoma na puno veći. I možemo proći kroz razloge za to, ali u osnovi, maloj stanici je trebao jedan ili dva mjeseca da se dobiju rezultati, dok kod velike stanice koja brže raste, treba samo dva dana. Postoji puno ciklusa koje možemo preći u godini ako je ciklus šest tjedana. I trebate znati da 99, vjerovatno i više od 99 posto naših eksperimenata nije uspjelo. Ovo je bilo raspetljavanje, stategija rješavanja problema od početka jer nije postojao recept za kako doći do tog rezultata.
So, one of the most important publications we had was in 2007. Carole Lartigue led the effort to actually transplant a bacterial chromosome from one bacteria to another. I think philosophically, that was one of the most important papers that we've ever done because it showed how dynamic life was. And we knew, once that worked, that we actually had a chance if we could make the synthetic chromosomes to do the same with those. We didn't know that it was going to take us several years more to get there.
Jedna od važnijih publikacija koje smo imali je bila 2007. godine. Carole Lartigue je predvodila zalaganje da se bakterijski kromosom zapravo transplantira iz jedne bakterije u drugu. Filozofski mislim da je to jedan od najvažnijih studija koje smo učinili jer nam je pokazala dinamiku života. I znali smo, kad nam je to konačno uspjelo, da zapravo imamo šanse, ako uspijemo napraviti sintetičke kromosome, učiniti isto i s njima. Nismo znali da će nam trebati nekoliko dodatnih godina da stignemo tamo.
In 2008, we reported the complete synthesis of the Mycoplasma genitalium genome, a little over 500,000 letters of genetic code, but we have not yet succeeded in booting up that chromosome. We think in part, because of its slow growth and, in part, cells have all kinds of unique defense mechanisms to keep these events from happening. It turned out the cell that we were trying to transplant into had a nuclease, an enzyme that chews up DNA on its surface, and was happy to eat the synthetic DNA that we gave it and never got transplantations. But at the time, that was the largest molecule of a defined structure that had been made.
2008. godine objavili smo kompletnu sintezu genoma Mycoplasma genitalium, malo više od 500000 slova genetičkog koda, ali nismo još bili uspjeli pokrenuti kromosom. Mislimo da je djelom zbog njegovog sporog rasta, a dijelom zbog jedinstvenih obrambenih mehanizama koje stanice imaju da se ti procesi ne bi događali. Ispalo je da stanice u koje smo pokušavali transplantirati imaju nukleaze, enzim koji kida DNK na njenoj površini, i bio je sretan jedući sintetički DNK koji smo mu dali i nikada se nije transplantirala. U to vrijeme, to je bila najveća molekula poznate strukture koja je bila stvorena.
And so both sides were progressing, but part of the synthesis had to be accomplished or was able to be accomplished using yeast, putting the fragments in yeast and yeast would assemble these for us. It's an amazing step forward, but we had a problem because now we had the bacterial chromosomes growing in yeast. So in addition to doing the transplant, we had to find out how to get a bacterial chromosome out of the eukaryotic yeast into a form where we could transplant it into a recipient cell.
I obje strane su napredovale. ali dio sinteze morao se postići ili se mogao postići koristeći kvasce, stavljajući dijelove u kvasac i kvasac bi ih spojio za nas. Bio je to veliki korak naprijed, ali imali smo problem jer smo dobili bakterijske kromosome koji rastu u kvascu. U dodatku na transplantaciju, morali smo pronaći način kako bakterijski kromosom izvući iz eukariotskog kvasca u obliku u kojem ga možemo transplantirati u primateljsku stanicu.
So our team developed new techniques for actually growing, cloning entire bacterial chromosomes in yeast. So we took the same mycoides genome that Carole had initially transplanted, and we grew that in yeast as an artificial chromosome. And we thought this would be a great test bed for learning how to get chromosomes out of yeast and transplant them. When we did these experiments, though, we could get the chromosome out of yeast but it wouldn't transplant and boot up a cell. That little issue took the team two years to solve.
Zato je naš tim razvio novu tehniku za rast i kloniranje cijelih bakterijskih kromosoma u kvascima. Uzeli smo isti mikoidni genom koji je Carol u početku transplantirala, i razvili smo ga u kvascu kao umjetni kromosom. I pomislili smo da će ovo biti dobra testna podloga za učenje kako izvaditi kromosome iz kvasaca i transplantirati ih. No, kada smo radili te eksperimente, mogli smo izvući kromosom iz kvasca ali se on ne bi transplantirao i pokrenuo stanicu. Trebalo je dvije godine timu kako bi riješio taj mali problem.
It turns out, the DNA in the bacterial cell was actually methylated, and the methylation protects it from the restriction enzyme, from digesting the DNA. So what we found is if we took the chromosome out of yeast and methylated it, we could then transplant it. Further advances came when the team removed the restriction enzyme genes from the recipient capricolum cell. And once we had done that, now we can take naked DNA out of yeast and transplant it.
Ispalo je da je DNK u bakterijskoj stanici zapravo metilirana, a metilacija ga štiti od restrikcijskih enzima, od probavljanja DNK. Ono što smo otkrili je da ako uzmemo kromosome van iz kvasca i metiliramo ih, tada ih možemo transplantirati. Daljnji napretci su došli kada je tim uklonio gene za restrikcijske enzime iz primateljske stanice capricoluma. I jednom kada smo to učinili, mogli smo transplantirati gole DNA iz kvasaca.
So last fall when we published the results of that work in Science, we all became overconfident and were sure we were only a few weeks away from being able to now boot up a chromosome out of yeast. Because of the problems with Mycoplasma genitalium and its slow growth about a year and a half ago, we decided to synthesize the much larger chromosome, the mycoides chromosome, knowing that we had the biology worked out on that for transplantation. And Dan led the team for the synthesis of this over one-million-base pair chromosome. But it turned out it wasn't going to be as simple in the end, and it set us back three months because we had one error out of over a million base pairs in that sequence.
I prošle jeseni kad smo objavili rezultate tog rada u Science, postali smo previše sigurni i bili smo uvjereni da smo samo nekoliko tjedana daleko od toga da ćemo moći pokrenuti kromosome iz kvasca. Zbog problema s Mycoplasma genitalium i njezinim sporim rastom prije godinu i pol, odlučili smo sintetizirati mnogo veći kromosom, mikoidni kromosom, znajući da smo već obavili biologiju na njemu za transplantaciju. Dan je vodio tim za sintezu ovog kromosoma s više od jednog milijuna parova baza. Ispalo je da neće biti baš tako jednostavno na kraju, i vratilo nas je natrag tri mjeseca jer smo imali jednu grešku u tih više od milijun parova baza u sekvenci.
So the team developed new debugging software, where we could test each synthetic fragment to see if it would grow in a background of wild type DNA. And we found that 10 out of the 11 100,000-base pair pieces we synthesized were completely accurate and compatible with a life-forming sequence. We narrowed it down to one fragment; we sequenced it and found just one base pair had been deleted in an essential gene. So accuracy is essential. There's parts of the genome where it cannot tolerate even a single error, and then there's parts of the genome where we can put in large blocks of DNA, as we did with the watermarks, and it can tolerate all kinds of errors. So it took about three months to find that error and repair it. And then early one morning, at 6 a.m. we got a text from Dan saying that, now, the first blue colonies existed.
Zato je tim razvio novi software za uklanjanje grešaka, u kojem smo mogli testirati svaki sintetizirani fragment i vidjeti bi li rastao u pozadini DNK divljeg tipa. I pronašli smo da su 10 od 11 dijelova od 100000 parova baza koje smo sintetizirali bili u potpunosti točni i spojivi sa sekvencom koja stvara život. Suzili smo to na jedan dijelić, sekvencionirali smo ga, i otkrili smo da je samo jedan par baza bio obrisan u jednom osnovnom genu. Točnost je jako bitna. Postoje dijelovi genoma gdje se ne mogu tolerirati čak i najmanje greške, a postoje i dijelovi genoma u koje možemo umetnuti velike dijelove DNA, kao što smo učinili s vodenim žigovima, i može tolerirati različite greške. Trebalo nam je oko tri mjeseca da pronađemo tu grešku i popravimo je. I rano jednog jutra, u 6 sati dobili smo poruku od Dana u kojoj je pisalo da postoje prve plave kolonije.
So, it's been a long route to get here: 15 years from the beginning. We felt one of the tenets of this field was to make absolutely certain we could distinguish synthetic DNA from natural DNA. Early on, when you're working in a new area of science, you have to think about all the pitfalls and things that could lead you to believe that you had done something when you hadn't, and, even worse, leading others to believe it. So, we thought the worst problem would be a single molecule contamination of the native chromosome, leading us to believe that we actually had created a synthetic cell, when it would have been just a contaminant.
Bilo je to dugačko putovanje kako bi smo stigli ovdje: 15 godina od početka. Morali smo potvrditi jedno od načela ovog područja a to je da možemo u potpunosti razlikovati sintetičku DNA od prirodne DNA. Kada se radi o novoj grani znanosti, moraš misliti o svim zamkama i svim stvarima koje te mogu navesti da vjeruješ kako si učinio nešto kada to nisi, i, još gore, navesti i druge da povjeruju u to. Mislili smo da bi najveći problem bio kontaminacije jednom molekulom prirodnog kromosoma, koja bi nas navela na vjerovanje da smo stvorili sintetičku stanicu, a da je to zapravo samo kontaminacija.
So early on, we developed the notion of putting in watermarks in the DNA to absolutely make clear that the DNA was synthetic. And the first chromosome we built in 2008 -- the 500,000-base pair one -- we simply assigned the names of the authors of the chromosome into the genetic code, but it was using just amino acid single letter translations, which leaves out certain letters of the alphabet. So the team actually developed a new code within the code within the code. So it's a new code for interpreting and writing messages in DNA. Now, mathematicians have been hiding and writing messages in the genetic code for a long time, but it's clear they were mathematicians and not biologists because, if you write long messages with the code that the mathematicians developed, it would more than likely lead to new proteins being synthesized with unknown functions.
Zato smo ranije dobili ideju da stavljamo vodene žigove u DNA da budemo u potpunosti sigurno da je DNA bila sintetizirana. I prvi kromosom koji smo izgradili 2008 -- onaj od 500000 parova baza jednostavno smo upisali imena autora kromosoma u genetički kod, ali samo koristeći aminokiseline, translaciju jednog slova, što izostavlja određena slova alfabeta. Tim je razvio novi kod unutar koda koji je unutar koda. To je novi kod za interpretaciju i pisanje poruka u DNA. Sad, matematičati su bili skrivali i pisali poruke u genetičkom kodu dosta dugo, ali očigledno su bili matematičari, a ne biolozi, jer, ako se napišu dugačke poruke unutar koda koji su razvili matematičari, vjerojatno će to dovesti do sinteze novog proteina s nepoznatom funkcijom.
So the code that Mike Montague and the team developed actually puts frequent stop codons, so it's a different alphabet but allows us to use the entire English alphabet with punctuation and numbers. So, there are four major watermarks all over 1,000 base pairs of genetic code. The first one actually contains within it this code for interpreting the rest of the genetic code. So in the remaining information, in the watermarks, contain the names of, I think it's 46 different authors and key contributors to getting the project to this stage. And we also built in a website address so that if somebody decodes the code within the code within the code, they can send an email to that address. So it's clearly distinguishable from any other species, having 46 names in it, its own web address. And we added three quotations, because with the first genome we were criticized for not trying to say something more profound than just signing the work.
Stoga kod koji su razvili Mike Montague i tim zapravo često stavlja stop kodone, pa je to drugačiji alfabet ali omogućava nam korištenje cijelog engleskog alfabeta s interpunkcijskim znakovima i brojevima. Postoje četiri velika vodena žiga svi su preko 1000 parova baza genetičkog koda. Prvi zapravo sadrži u sebi kod za interpretaciju ostatka genetičkog koda. Pa u ostalim informacijama u ostalim vodenim žigovima, sadrži imena, mislim da je 46 različitih autora i glavnih suradnika koji su doveli projekt do ovog stadija. Također smo ugradili i web adresu tako da ako netko dekodira kod unutar koda koji je unutar koda, mogu poslati email na tu adresu. Očito se može razlikovati od drugih vrsta, ima 46 imena u sebi, ima svoju web adresu. I dodali smo tri citata, jer smo unutar prvog genoma bili kritizirani jer nismo pokušali reći nešto dubokoumno nego samo potpisati djelo.
So we won't give the rest of the code, but we will give the three quotations. The first is, "To live, to err, to fall, to triumph and to recreate life out of life." It's a James Joyce quote. The second quotation is, "See things not as they are, but as they might be." It's a quote from the "American Prometheus" book on Robert Oppenheimer. And the last one is a Richard Feynman quote: "What I cannot build, I cannot understand." So, because this is as much a philosophical advance as a technical advance in science, we tried to deal with both the philosophical and the technical side.
Nećemo vam dati ostatak koda, Ali dat ćemo vam tri citata. Prvi je: „Živjeti, griješiti, pasti, pobijediti i ponovno stvoriti život iz života.“ To je citat Jamesa Joycea. Drugi citat je: „Gledaj stvari ne kakve jesu, već kakve bi mogle biti.“ To je citat iz Američkog Prometeja, knjige o Robertu Oppenheimeru. I zadnji citat je citat Richarda Feynmana: „Ono što ne mogu sagraditi, ne mogu razumjeti.“ Budući da je ovo jednako filozofski napredak kao i napredak u znanosti pokušali smo riješiti i filozofsku i tehničku stranu.
The last thing I want to say before turning it over to questions is that the extensive work that we've done -- asking for ethical review, pushing the envelope on that side as well as the technical side -- this has been broadly discussed in the scientific community, in the policy community and at the highest levels of the federal government. Even with this announcement, as we did in 2003 -- that work was funded by the Department of Energy, so the work was reviewed at the level of the White House, trying to decide whether to classify the work or publish it. And they came down on the side of open publication, which is the right approach -- we've briefed the White House, we've briefed members of Congress, we've tried to take and push the policy issues in parallel with the scientific advances.
Posljednje što želim reći prije no što pređemo na pitanja je da opsežan posao koji smo napravilii - tražeći etičke provjere, pomičući granice na toj strani kao i na tehničkoj strani - o ovome se naširoko razgovaralo u znanstvenom društvu u političkom društvu i najvišim razinama federalne vlasti. Čak i s najavom, koja je bila 2003 - da je rad financiran od strane Ministarstva energije, rad je pregledan na razini Bijele kuće pokušavajući odlučiti je li rad strogo povjerljiv ili se može objaviti. I dogovorili su se da se može slobodno objaviti, što je pravi pristup - izvještavali smo Bijelu kuću, izvještavali smo članove Kongresa pokušali smo progurati političke probleme paralelno sa znanstvenim napretcima.
So with that, I would like to open it first to the floor for questions. Yes, in the back.
I s tim bih htio započeti s pitanjima Da, u pozadini.
Reporter: Could you explain, in layman's terms, how significant a breakthrough this is please?
Reporter: Možete li objasniti laički koja je značajnost ovakvog otkrića?
Craig Venter: Can we explain how significant this is? I'm not sure we're the ones that should be explaining how significant it is. It's significant to us. Perhaps it's a giant philosophical change in how we view life. We actually view it as a baby step in terms of, it's taken us 15 years to be able to do the experiment we wanted to do 15 years ago on understanding life at its basic level. But we actually believe this is going to be a very powerful set of tools and we're already starting in numerous avenues to use this tool.
Craig Venter: Možemo li objasniti značajnost ovoga? Nisam siguran jesmo li mi ti koji bi trebali objasniti značajnost ovoga. Značajno je nama. Možda je velika filozofska promjena pogleda na život. Mi to zapravo vidimo kao male korake, trebalo nam je 15 godina da bismo napraviti eksperiment koji smo htjeli napraviti prije 15 godina O razumijevanju života na osnovnoj razini. Ali zapravo vjerujemo da će ovo biti moćno oruđe i da već počinjemo u različitim granama koristiti to oruđe.
We have, at the Institute, ongoing funding now from NIH in a program with Novartis to try and use these new synthetic DNA tools to perhaps make the flu vaccine that you might get next year. Because instead of taking weeks to months to make these, Dan's team can now make these in less than 24 hours. So when you see how long it took to get an H1N1 vaccine out, we think we can shorten that process quite substantially. In the vaccine area, Synthetic Genomics and the Institute are forming a new vaccine company because we think these tools can affect vaccines to diseases that haven't been possible to date, things where the viruses rapidly evolve, such with rhinovirus. Wouldn't it be nice to have something that actually blocked common colds? Or, more importantly, HIV, where the virus evolves so quickly the vaccines that are made today can't keep up with those evolutionary changes.
Na Institutu imamo stalno financiranje od strane NIH-a u programu s Novartisom da se pokuša iskoristiti ovo novo oruđe za sintezu DNA i možda napravi cjepivo protiv gripe koje ćete možda dobiti sljedeće godine. Umjesto da se čeka tjednima i mjesecima kako bi se dobilo, Danov tim ga može napraviti za manje od 24 sata. Kada gledate koliko dugo je trebalo da se dobije H1N1 vakcina, mislimo da možemo skratiti proces i to podosta. U području cjepiva Sintethic Genomic i Institut osnivaju novu kompaniju za cjepiva jer mislimo da će ovo oruđe imati utjecaj na cjepiva za bolesti koje ne možemo datirati, kada virusi brzo evoluiraju, ooput rinovirusa. Zar ne bi bilo lijepo imati nešto što će zapravo spriječiti običnu prehladu? Ili još važnije HIV, gdje virus evoluira tako brzo da cjepiva koje su napravljena danas ne mogu sustići te evolucijske promjene.
Also, at Synthetic Genomics, we've been working on major environmental issues. I think this latest oil spill in the Gulf is a reminder. We can't see CO2 -- we depend on scientific measurements for it and we see the beginning results of having too much of it -- but we can see pre-CO2 now floating on the waters and contaminating the beaches in the Gulf. We need some alternatives for oil. We have a program with Exxon Mobile to try and develop new strains of algae that can efficiently capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from concentrated sources, make new hydrocarbons that can go into their refineries to make normal gasoline and diesel fuel out of CO2.
Također u Synthetic Genomics radimo na velikim problemima okoliša. Mislim da je ova zadnja prolivena nafta u zaljevu podsjetnik. Ne možemo vidjeti CO2 zato ovisimo o znanstvenima mjerenjima i vidimo početne rezultate gdje ga imamo previše - ali sada možemo vidjeti pre-CO2 kako pluta na vodi i onečišćuje plaže zaljeva. Trebamo alternative za naftu. Radimo program s Exxon Mobile gdje pokušavamo razviti novu vrstu algi koje mogu učinkovito zarobiti ugljikov dioksid iz atmosfere ili koncentriranih izvora, stvoriti nove ugljikovodike koji se mogu iskoristiti u rafinerijama kako bi se dobio normalan benzin i diesel gorivo iz CO2.
Those are just a couple of the approaches and directions that we're taking.
To su samo nekoliko pristupa i smjerova kojima idemo.
(Applause)
(Pljesak)