My subject today is learning. And in that spirit, I want to spring on you all a pop quiz. Ready? When does learning begin? Now as you ponder that question, maybe you're thinking about the first day of preschool or kindergarten, the first time that kids are in a classroom with a teacher. Or maybe you've called to mind the toddler phase when children are learning how to walk and talk and use a fork. Maybe you've encountered the Zero-to-Three movement, which asserts that the most important years for learning are the earliest ones. And so your answer to my question would be: Learning begins at birth.
Moja današnja tema je učenje. In v tej luči vam želim zastaviti kviz vprašanje. Pripravljeni? Kdaj se učenje začne? Medtem ko razmišljate, morda mislite na prvi dan male šole ali vrtca, na prvo priložnost, ko so otroci v razredu z učiteljem. Morda ste se spomnili faze malčka, ko se otroci učijo hoditi in govoriti ter uporabljati vilice. Morda ste slišali za gibanje "od nič do tri", ki trdi, da so najpomembnejša leta za učenje prav najzgodnejša. Vaš odgovor na moje vprašanje bi tako bil: učenje se začne z rojstvom.
Well today I want to present to you an idea that may be surprising and may even seem implausible, but which is supported by the latest evidence from psychology and biology. And that is that some of the most important learning we ever do happens before we're born, while we're still in the womb. Now I'm a science reporter. I write books and magazine articles. And I'm also a mother. And those two roles came together for me in a book that I wrote called "Origins." "Origins" is a report from the front lines of an exciting new field called fetal origins. Fetal origins is a scientific discipline that emerged just about two decades ago, and it's based on the theory that our health and well-being throughout our lives is crucially affected by the nine months we spend in the womb. Now this theory was of more than just intellectual interest to me. I was myself pregnant while I was doing the research for the book. And one of the most fascinating insights I took from this work is that we're all learning about the world even before we enter it.
No, danes bi vam rada predstavila zamisel, ki je morda presenetljiva in se sliši celo neverjetno, vendar jo podpirajo novi dokazi s področja psihologije in biologije. In ti kažejo, da se nekaj najpomembnejšega učenja zgodi, preden se rodimo, ko smo še v maternici. Sama sem poročevalka s področja znanosti. Pišem knjige in članke. In sem tudi mati. Ti dve vlogi sta se združili v moji knjigi z naslovom "Izvori" (Origins). "Izvori" je poročilo iz prve vrste o vznemirljivem novem področju, imenovanem izvor zarodkov. Izvor zarodkov je znanstvena disciplina, ki se je pojavila pred kakima dvema desetletjema in temelji na teoriji, da na naše zdravje in dobro počutje skozi celo življenje bistveno vpliva devet mesecev, ki jih preživimo v maternici. Ta teorija me je zanimala bolj kot le z znanstvenega vidika. Sama sem bila noseča, ko sem raziskovala za knjigo. In ena od stvari, ki so me najbolj prevzele med tem delom, je to, da se vsi učimo o svetu, še preden vstopimo vanj.
When we hold our babies for the first time, we might imagine that they're clean slates, unmarked by life, when in fact, they've already been shaped by us and by the particular world we live in. Today I want to share with you some of the amazing things that scientists are discovering about what fetuses learn while they're still in their mothers' bellies.
Ko prvič držimo v naročju svojega otroka, si morda predstavljamo, da je prazen list papirja, nezaznamovan od življenja, čeprav smo ga dejansko že oblikovali mi sami ter svet, v katerem živimo. Danes bi z vami rada delila nekaj neverjetnih stvari, ki jih znanstveniki odkrivajo o tem, česa se zarodki naučijo, ko so še v maminem trebuhu.
First of all, they learn the sound of their mothers' voices. Because sounds from the outside world have to travel through the mother's abdominal tissue and through the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus, the voices fetuses hear, starting around the fourth month of gestation, are muted and muffled. One researcher says that they probably sound a lot like the the voice of Charlie Brown's teacher in the old "Peanuts" cartoon. But the pregnant woman's own voice reverberates through her body, reaching the fetus much more readily. And because the fetus is with her all the time, it hears her voice a lot. Once the baby's born, it recognizes her voice and it prefers listening to her voice over anyone else's.
Prvič, naučijo se zvoka maminega glasu. Ker morajo zvoki od zunaj potovati skozi mamin trebuh in skozi amniotsko tekočino, ki obkroža zarodek, so glasovi, ki jih zarodek sliši nekje od četrtega meseca naprej, pridušeni in nejasni. Eden od raziskovalcev pravi, da so verjetno slišati kot glas učitelja Charlieja Browna v risanki "Peanuts". Glas noseče ženske pa odmeva skozi njeno telo in dosti lažje doseže zarodek. In ker je zarodek z njo ves čas, zelo pogosto sliši njen glas. Ko se rodi, ta glas prepozna in ga posluša raje kot kateregakoli drugega.
How can we know this? Newborn babies can't do much, but one thing they're really good at is sucking. Researchers take advantage of this fact by rigging up two rubber nipples, so that if a baby sucks on one, it hears a recording of its mother's voice on a pair of headphones, and if it sucks on the other nipple, it hears a recording of a female stranger's voice. Babies quickly show their preference by choosing the first one. Scientists also take advantage of the fact that babies will slow down their sucking when something interests them and resume their fast sucking when they get bored. This is how researchers discovered that, after women repeatedly read aloud a section of Dr. Seuss' "The Cat in the Hat" while they were pregnant, their newborn babies recognized that passage when they hear it outside the womb. My favorite experiment of this kind is the one that showed that the babies of women who watched a certain soap opera every day during pregnancy recognized the theme song of that show once they were born. So fetuses are even learning about the particular language that's spoken in the world that they'll be born into.
Kako to vemo? Novorojenčki ne morejo početi veliko stvari, zelo dobri pa so pri sesanju. Raziskovalci izkoriščajo to dejstvo tako, da uporabijo dve gumijasti bradavici: ko dojenček sesa eno, sliši posnetek materinega glasu skozi slušalke; ko sesa drugo bradavico, pa sliši posnetek tujega ženskega glasu. Dojenčki hitro pokažejo svojo nagnjenost, tako da izberejo prvo. Raziskovalci si pomagajo tudi z dejstvom, da dojenčki upočasnijo sesanje, ko jih nekaj zanima in spet nadaljujejo s hitrejšim sesanjem, ko se dolgočasijo. Na ta način so raziskovalci ugotovili, da so potem ko so ženske večkrat naglas brale izsek iz knjige Dr Seussa "Mačka v klobuku" med svojo nosečnostjo, novorojenčki prepoznali ta izsek, tudi ko so ga slišali izven maternice. Moj najljubši tovrstni eksperiment te vrste pa je tisti, ki kaže, da so otroci žensk, ki so med nosečnostjo vsak dan gledale določeno nadaljevanko, prepoznali naslovno pesem serije, potem ko so se rodili. Torej, zarodki se učijo celo posebnega jezika, ki ga govorimo v svetu, v katerega se bodo rodili.
A study published last year found that from birth, from the moment of birth, babies cry in the accent of their mother's native language. French babies cry on a rising note while German babies end on a falling note, imitating the melodic contours of those languages. Now why would this kind of fetal learning be useful? It may have evolved to aid the baby's survival. From the moment of birth, the baby responds most to the voice of the person who is most likely to care for it -- its mother. It even makes its cries sound like the mother's language, which may further endear the baby to the mother, and which may give the baby a head start in the critical task of learning how to understand and speak its native language.
Lanskoletna študija je ugotovila, da od rojstva, od trenutka rojstva dojenčki jočejo v naglasu maminega maternega jezika. Francoski dojenčki jočejo z naraščajočim tonom, nemški pa s padajočim, s čimer imitirajo melodične posebnosti teh dveh jezikov. Zakaj pa je tovrstno učenje zarodkov koristno? Morda se je razvilo kot pomoč pri preživetju otroka. Od rojstva naprej se otrok najbolj odziva na glas osebe, ki bo najbolj verjetno skrbela zanj -- svoje matere. Celo joče v materinem jeziku, kar lahko še bolj približa mater otroku in kar dojenčku lahko pomaga pri kritični nalogi učenja, kako razumeti in govoriti svoj materni jezik.
But it's not just sounds that fetuses are learning about in utero. It's also tastes and smells. By seven months of gestation, the fetus' taste buds are fully developed, and its olfactory receptors, which allow it to smell, are functioning. The flavors of the food a pregnant woman eats find their way into the amniotic fluid, which is continuously swallowed by the fetus. Babies seem to remember and prefer these tastes once they're out in the world. In one experiment, a group of pregnant women was asked to drink a lot of carrot juice during their third trimester of pregnancy, while another group of pregnant women drank only water. Six months later, the women's infants were offered cereal mixed with carrot juice, and their facial expressions were observed while they ate it. The offspring of the carrot juice drinking women ate more carrot-flavored cereal, and from the looks of it, they seemed to enjoy it more.
Niso pa samo zvoki tisto, česar se zarodki učijo v maternici. Gre tudi za okus in vonj. V sedmem mesecu nosečnosti so brbončice na jeziku docela razvite in vohalni receptorji, ki omogočajo voh, delujejo. Okusi hrane, ki jo je nosečnica, se znajdejo v amniotski tekočini, ki jo zarodek stalno požira. Kaže, da se dojenčki spomnijo teh okusov in jih imajo raje tudi ko se rodijo. V enem poizkusu so skupino nosečnic prosili, naj pijejo veliko korenčkovega soka, ko so bile v tretjem trimesečju, medtem ko je druga skupina nosečnic pila samo vodo. Šest mesecev kasneje so otrokom teh žensk ponudili žitarice, zmešane s korenčkovim sokom, in opazovali izraze na njihovih obrazih, ko so jih jedli. Otroci žensk, ki so pile korenčkov sok, so pojedli več žitaric z okusom korenja in videti je bilo, da so pri tem bolj uživali.
A sort of French version of this experiment was carried out in Dijon, France where researchers found that mothers who consumed food and drink flavored with licorice-flavored anise during pregnancy showed a preference for anise on their first day of life, and again, when they were tested later, on their fourth day of life. Babies whose mothers did not eat anise during pregnancy showed a reaction that translated roughly as "yuck." What this means is that fetuses are effectively being taught by their mothers about what is safe and good to eat. Fetuses are also being taught about the particular culture that they'll be joining through one of culture's most powerful expressions, which is food. They're being introduced to the characteristic flavors and spices of their culture's cuisine even before birth.
Neke vrste francosko verzijo tega eksperimenta so izvedli v Dijonu v Franciji, kjer so raziskovalci odkrili, da so otroci mater, ki so med nosečnostjo uživale hrano in pijačo z okusom sladkega korena, kazali preferenco do sladkega korena že prvi dan življenja pa tudi kasneje, ko so jih testirali četrti dan po rojstvu. Otroci, katerih matere med nosečnostjo niso uživale sladkega korena, so reagirali na način, ki ga lahko na grobo prevedemo kot "fuj". To pomeni, da matere učijo svoje zarodke o tem, kaj je varno in dobro jesti. Zarodki se učijo tudi o posebni kulturi, ki se ji bodo pridružili, in sicer skozi enega najmočnejših kulturnih izrazov, hrano. Uvedeni so v značilne okuse in začimbe kuhinje njihove kulture, in to še pred rojstvom.
Now it turns out that fetuses are learning even bigger lessons. But before I get to that, I want to address something that you may be wondering about. The notion of fetal learning may conjure up for you attempts to enrich the fetus -- like playing Mozart through headphones placed on a pregnant belly. But actually, the nine-month-long process of molding and shaping that goes on in the womb is a lot more visceral and consequential than that. Much of what a pregnant woman encounters in her daily life -- the air she breathes, the food and drink she consumes, the chemicals she's exposed to, even the emotions she feels -- are shared in some fashion with her fetus. They make up a mix of influences as individual and idiosyncratic as the woman herself. The fetus incorporates these offerings into its own body, makes them part of its flesh and blood. And often it does something more. It treats these maternal contributions as information, as what I like to call biological postcards from the world outside.
Izkaže se, da se zarodki učijo še pomembnejših lekcij. A preden se posvetim temu, bi rada povedala nekaj, kar vas bo morda začudilo. Zamisel učenja zarodka vas bo morda navedla k poskusom, kako obogatiti zarodek -- kot denimo z igranjem Mozarta skozi slušalke, ki jih položite na trebuh nosečnice. A v resnici je devetmesečni proces oblikovanja in formiranja tega, kar se dogaja v maternici, veliko bolj ponotranjen in pomemben od tega. Večina stvari, ki jih nosečnica doživi v svojem vsakdanu -- zrak, ki ga diha, hrana in pijača, ki ju uživa, kemikalije, ki jim je izpostavljena, celo čustva, ki jih občuti -- na določen način deli z zarodkom. Skupaj sestavljajo mešanico vplivov, ki so tako edinstveni in posebni kot ženska sama. Zarodek te vtise ponotranji v svoje telo, iz njih naredi del svojega mesa in krvi. Pogosto pa naredi še nekaj več. Te materine prispevke obravnava kot informacije, kar jaz imenujem biološke kartice iz zunanjega sveta.
So what a fetus is learning about in utero is not Mozart's "Magic Flute" but answers to questions much more critical to its survival. Will it be born into a world of abundance or scarcity? Will it be safe and protected, or will it face constant dangers and threats? Will it live a long, fruitful life or a short, harried one? The pregnant woman's diet and stress level in particular provide important clues to prevailing conditions like a finger lifted to the wind. The resulting tuning and tweaking of a fetus' brain and other organs are part of what give us humans our enormous flexibility, our ability to thrive in a huge variety of environments, from the country to the city, from the tundra to the desert.
To, kar se zarodek uči v maternici, ni Mozartova Čarobna piščal, temveč so odgovori na vprašanja, ki so veliko bolj ključna za njegovo preživetje. Se bo rodil v svet blagostanja ali pomanjkanja? Bo varen in zaščiten ali bo stalno v nevarnosti in ogrožen? Bo živel dolgo, polno življenje ali kratko in nemirno? Posebej prehrana in stopnja stresa nosečnice dajeta pomembne podatke o prevladujočih pogojih, podobno kot prst, ki ga dvignemo v vetru. Iz tega izhajajoče uglaševanje in prilagajanje zarodkovih možganov in drugih organov je del tega, zaradi česar smo ljudje tako zelo prilagodljivi, imamo sposobnost preživetja v veliko različnih okoljih, od podeželja do mest, od tundre do puščave.
To conclude, I want to tell you two stories about how mothers teach their children about the world even before they're born. In the autumn of 1944, the darkest days of World War II, German troops blockaded Western Holland, turning away all shipments of food. The opening of the Nazi's siege was followed by one of the harshest winters in decades -- so cold the water in the canals froze solid. Soon food became scarce, with many Dutch surviving on just 500 calories a day -- a quarter of what they consumed before the war. As weeks of deprivation stretched into months, some resorted to eating tulip bulbs. By the beginning of May, the nation's carefully rationed food reserve was completely exhausted. The specter of mass starvation loomed. And then on May 5th, 1945, the siege came to a sudden end when Holland was liberated by the Allies.
Za konec bi vam rada povedala dve zgodbi o tem, kako matere učijo svoje otroke o svetu, še preden se rodijo. Jeseni leta 1944, v najtemnejših dneh druge svetovne vojne, so nemške čete blokirale Zahodno Holandijo, kar je preprečilo dostop do hrane. Začetku nacističnega obleganja je sledila ena najostrejših zim v zadnjih desetletjih -- tako mrzla, da je voda v kanalih zmrznila v led. Kmalu je hrane začelo primanjkovati in veliko Nizozemcev je preživelo z le 500 kalorijami na dan, kar je četrtina tega, kar so užili pred vojno. Ko so se tedni pomanjkanja razširili na mesece, so nekateri začeli jesti tulipanove cvetove. Začetek maja je bila državna rezerva hrane povsem izpraznjena. Pričakovali so množično lakoto. Potem pa se je 5. maja 1945 obleganje nenadoma končalo, saj so Nizozemsko osvobodili zavezniki.
The "Hunger Winter," as it came to be known, killed some 10,000 people and weakened thousands more. But there was another population that was affected -- the 40,000 fetuses in utero during the siege. Some of the effects of malnutrition during pregnancy were immediately apparent in higher rates of stillbirths, birth defects, low birth weights and infant mortality. But others wouldn't be discovered for many years. Decades after the "Hunger Winter," researchers documented that people whose mothers were pregnant during the siege have more obesity, more diabetes and more heart disease in later life than individuals who were gestated under normal conditions. These individuals' prenatal experience of starvation seems to have changed their bodies in myriad ways. They have higher blood pressure, poorer cholesterol profiles and reduced glucose tolerance -- a precursor of diabetes.
"Zima lakote", kot so jo imenovali, je umorila okoli 10.000 ljudi in oslabila še na tisoče več. A prizadeta je bila še ena skupina -- 40.000 zarodkov, ki so bili v maternicah med obleganjem. Nekateri učinki podhranjenosti med nosečnostjo so takoj postali očitni, denimo večji delež mrtvorojenih otrok, novorojenčki s hibami, nizko porodno težo in smrtnost otrok. A drugih niso zaznali še dolga leta. Desetletja po "zimi lakote" so raziskovalci dognali, da so bili ljudje, katerih matere so bile noseče med obleganjem, bolj debeli, imeli več sladkorne bolezni in več srčnih obolenj kasneje v življenju kot posamezniki, ki so bili v maternici pod normalnimi pogoji. Ta predporodna izkušnja lakote je očitno spremenila njihova telesa na mnoge načine. Imajo višji krvni pritisk, slabšo sliko holesterola in nižjo toleranco na glukozo -- kar je predhodnik sladkorne bolezni.
Why would undernutrition in the womb result in disease later? One explanation is that fetuses are making the best of a bad situation. When food is scarce, they divert nutrients towards the really critical organ, the brain, and away from other organs like the heart and liver. This keeps the fetus alive in the short-term, but the bill comes due later on in life when those other organs, deprived early on, become more susceptible to disease.
Zakaj bi podhranjenost v maternici povzročila bolezen kasneje? Ena razlaga je, da zarodki iz slabih okoliščin naredijo najboljši možen rezultat. Ko manjka hrane, se usmerijo k res kritičnemu organu, k možganom, stran od drugih organov, kot sta srce in jetra. To na kratki rok omogoča preživetje zarodka, a račun je treba plačati kasneje v življenju, ki ti drugi organi, ki so na začetku čutili pomanjkanje, postanejo bolj dovzetni za bolezen.
But that may not be all that's going on. It seems that fetuses are taking cues from the intrauterine environment and tailoring their physiology accordingly. They're preparing themselves for the kind of world they will encounter on the other side of the womb. The fetus adjusts its metabolism and other physiological processes in anticipation of the environment that awaits it. And the basis of the fetus' prediction is what its mother eats. The meals a pregnant woman consumes constitute a kind of story, a fairy tale of abundance or a grim chronicle of deprivation. This story imparts information that the fetus uses to organize its body and its systems -- an adaptation to prevailing circumstances that facilitates its future survival. Faced with severely limited resources, a smaller-sized child with reduced energy requirements will, in fact, have a better chance of living to adulthood.
A morda to ni vse, kar se dogaja. Videti je, da zarodki sprejemajo namige iz medmaterničnega okolja in jim prilagodijo svojo fiziologijo. Pripravljajo se na svet, ki ga bodo spoznali na drugi strani maternice. Zarodek prilagodi svoj metabolizem in druge fiziološke procese, v pričakovanju okolja, v katerega bo vstopil. In osnova za zarodkovo napoved je to, s čimer se hrani njegova mati. Obroki, ki jih uživa nosečnica, so nekakšna zgodba, pravljica o blagostanju ali žalosten zapis o pomanjkanju. Ta zgodba daje informacije, ki jih zarodek uporabi, da organizira svoje telo in svoje sisteme -- kot prilagoditev na prevladujoče okoliščine, kar bo olajšalo njegovo preživetje. Če je soočen z omejenimi viri, bo manjši otrok z manjšimi potrebami po energiji pravzaprav imel več možnosti preživetja do odraslosti.
The real trouble comes when pregnant women are, in a sense, unreliable narrators, when fetuses are led to expect a world of scarcity and are born instead into a world of plenty. This is what happened to the children of the Dutch "Hunger Winter." And their higher rates of obesity, diabetes and heart disease are the result. Bodies that were built to hang onto every calorie found themselves swimming in the superfluous calories of the post-war Western diet. The world they had learned about while in utero was not the same as the world into which they were born.
Težava se začne, kadar so nosečnice v nekem smislu nezanesljive pripovedovalke, ko zarodek misli, da mora pričakovati svet pomanjkanja, rodi pa se v svet blagostanja. To se je zgodilo otrokom nizozemske "zime lakote". Višja pojavnost debelosti, sladkorne bolezni in srčnih obolenj je rezultat tega. Telesa, prilagojena na to, da izkoristijo vsako kalorijo, so se znašla med odvečnimi kalorijami povojnega zahodnega načina prehrane. Svet, ki so ga spoznali v maternici, ni bil enak tistemu, v katerega so se rodili.
Here's another story. At 8:46 a.m. on September 11th, 2001, there were tens of thousands of people in the vicinity of the World Trade Center in New York -- commuters spilling off trains, waitresses setting tables for the morning rush, brokers already working the phones on Wall Street. 1,700 of these people were pregnant women. When the planes struck and the towers collapsed, many of these women experienced the same horrors inflicted on other survivors of the disaster -- the overwhelming chaos and confusion, the rolling clouds of potentially toxic dust and debris, the heart-pounding fear for their lives.
Tule je še ena zgodba. 11. septembra 2011 ob 8.46 zjutraj je bilo v bližini Svetovnega trgovinskega centra (WTC) v New Yorku na desettisoče ljudi -- vozači, ki so sestopali z vlakov, natakarice, ki so pripravljale mize za jutranji naval, borzniki z Wall Streeta, ki so že viseli na telefonih. Od tega je bilo 1.700 nosečnic. Ko sta letali zadeli in sta se stolpa porušila, je veliko teh žensk doživelo enako strahoto kot drugi preživeli v tej katastrofi -- neverjeten kaos in zmešnjavo, valeče se oblake potencialno strupenega prahu in ruševin, ter razbijanje srca v strahu za svoja življenja.
About a year after 9/11, researchers examined a group of women who were pregnant when they were exposed to the World Trade Center attack. In the babies of those women who developed post-traumatic stress syndrome, or PTSD, following their ordeal, researchers discovered a biological marker of susceptibility to PTSD -- an effect that was most pronounced in infants whose mothers experienced the catastrophe in their third trimester. In other words, the mothers with post-traumatic stress syndrome had passed on a vulnerability to the condition to their children while they were still in utero.
Približno leto dni po 11. septembru so raziskovalci pregledali skupino žensk, ki so bile noseče, ko so bile priča napadu na WTC. V otrocih tistih žensk, ki so razvile posttravmatski sindrom (PTSD) po tem doživetju, so raziskovalci odkrili biološki znak nagnjenosti k PTSD -- učinek, ki je bil najbolj očiten pri dojenčkih, katerih matere so katastrofo doživele v zadnjem trimestru nosečnosti. Z drugimi besedami, matere s posttravmatskim sindromom so občutljivost na to stanje prenesle na svoje otroke, ko so bili ti še v maternici.
Now consider this: post-traumatic stress syndrome appears to be a reaction to stress gone very wrong, causing its victims tremendous unnecessary suffering. But there's another way of thinking about PTSD. What looks like pathology to us may actually be a useful adaptation in some circumstances. In a particularly dangerous environment, the characteristic manifestations of PTSD -- a hyper-awareness of one's surroundings, a quick-trigger response to danger -- could save someone's life. The notion that the prenatal transmission of PTSD risk is adaptive is still speculative, but I find it rather poignant. It would mean that, even before birth, mothers are warning their children that it's a wild world out there, telling them, "Be careful."
Zdaj pa razmislite o tem: posttravmatski sindrom je, kot kaže, zelo huda reakcija na stres, ki žrtvam povzroči ogromno nepotrebnega trpljenja. Je pa še en pogled na PTSD. Kar se nam zdi kot patologija, je morda uporabna prilagoditev na določene okoliščine. V posebej nevarnem okolju lahko značilne manifestacije PTSD -- hiper-zavedanje svojega okolja, hitro reagiranje na nevarnost -- rešijo življenje. Ideja, da je predporodni prenos rizika za PTSD prilagoditven, je še vedno le spekulativna, a meni se zdi precej ostra. To bi pomenilo, da matere še pred rojstvom opozorijo svoje otroke, da jih čaka nevaren svet, in jim naročijo: "Bodi previden."
Let me be clear. Fetal origins research is not about blaming women for what happens during pregnancy. It's about discovering how best to promote the health and well-being of the next generation. That important effort must include a focus on what fetuses learn during the nine months they spend in the womb. Learning is one of life's most essential activities, and it begins much earlier than we ever imagined.
Naj bom čisto jasna. Raziskave o izvoru zarodkov niso namenjene obtoževanju žensk za to, kar se zgodi med nosečnostjo. Gre za odkrivanje, kako najbolje spodbujati zdravje in dobro počutje naslednje generacije. Ta pomemben trud mora vsebovati osredotočanje na to, česa se zarodek nauči v devetih mesecih, ki jih preživi v maternici. Učenje je ena bistvenih življenjskih dejavnosti in začne se mnogo bolj zgodaj, kot smo si kdajkoli predstavljali.
Thank you.
Hvala.
(Applause)
(Aplavz)