My subject today is learning. And in that spirit, I want to spring on you all a pop quiz. Ready? When does learning begin? Now as you ponder that question, maybe you're thinking about the first day of preschool or kindergarten, the first time that kids are in a classroom with a teacher. Or maybe you've called to mind the toddler phase when children are learning how to walk and talk and use a fork. Maybe you've encountered the Zero-to-Three movement, which asserts that the most important years for learning are the earliest ones. And so your answer to my question would be: Learning begins at birth.
Danas je moja tema učenje. I u tom duhu želim vam svima postaviti pitanje. Spremni? Kada počinje učenje? Sada dok razmišljate o tom pitanju, možda mislite o prvom danu u maloj školi ili vrtiću, prvi put kada su djeca u razredu s učiteljem. Ili vam je možda pala na pamet razvojna faza kada djeca uče kako hodati, govoriti i upotrebljavati vilicu. Možda ste se susreli sa Nula do tri pokretom koji ističe da su najvažnije godine za učenje one najranije. I tako bi vaš odgovor na moje pitanje bio: Učenje počinje rođenjem.
Well today I want to present to you an idea that may be surprising and may even seem implausible, but which is supported by the latest evidence from psychology and biology. And that is that some of the most important learning we ever do happens before we're born, while we're still in the womb. Now I'm a science reporter. I write books and magazine articles. And I'm also a mother. And those two roles came together for me in a book that I wrote called "Origins." "Origins" is a report from the front lines of an exciting new field called fetal origins. Fetal origins is a scientific discipline that emerged just about two decades ago, and it's based on the theory that our health and well-being throughout our lives is crucially affected by the nine months we spend in the womb. Now this theory was of more than just intellectual interest to me. I was myself pregnant while I was doing the research for the book. And one of the most fascinating insights I took from this work is that we're all learning about the world even before we enter it.
Danas vam želim predstaviti ideju koja može iznenaditi i čak se može činiti nevjerojatnom, ali podržana je posljednjim dokazom iz psihologije i biologije. A to je da se neka od najvažnijih učenja koja nam se ikada dogode, događaju prije nego što se rodimo dok smo još u maternici. Ja sam znanstveni novinar. Pišem knjige i članke u časopisima. I također sam majka. I te su se dvije uloge stopile u knjizi koju sam napisala pod imenom Podrijetlo. „Podrijetlo“ su izvještaj s prvih linija uzbudljivog novog područja zvanog fetalno podrijetlo. Fetalno podrijetlo je znanstvena disciplina koja se pojavila prije dva desetljeća i zasnovana je na teoriji da je na naše zdravlje i dobrobit kroz naš život presudno djelovalo devet mjeseci koje smo proveli u maternici. Ova teorija bila je više od intelektualnog interesa za mene. Bila sam trudna dok sam radila istraživanje za knjigu. I jedno od najfascinantnijih shvaćanja koje sam dobila ovim radom je da svi učimo o svijetu prije nego što uđemo u njega.
When we hold our babies for the first time, we might imagine that they're clean slates, unmarked by life, when in fact, they've already been shaped by us and by the particular world we live in. Today I want to share with you some of the amazing things that scientists are discovering about what fetuses learn while they're still in their mothers' bellies.
Kada prvi put držimo naše bebe, možemo zamisliti da su na svježem početku, neobilježene životom, dok su zapravo već bile oblikovane od nas i specifičnog svijeta u kojem živimo. Danas želim podijeliti s vama neke nevjerojatne stvari koje znanstvenici otkrivaju o tome što fetusi uče dok su još u majčinim trbusima.
First of all, they learn the sound of their mothers' voices. Because sounds from the outside world have to travel through the mother's abdominal tissue and through the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus, the voices fetuses hear, starting around the fourth month of gestation, are muted and muffled. One researcher says that they probably sound a lot like the the voice of Charlie Brown's teacher in the old "Peanuts" cartoon. But the pregnant woman's own voice reverberates through her body, reaching the fetus much more readily. And because the fetus is with her all the time, it hears her voice a lot. Once the baby's born, it recognizes her voice and it prefers listening to her voice over anyone else's.
Prije svega, nauče zvuk majčina glasa. Zato što zvukovi iz vanjskog svijeta moraju putovati kroz majčino trbušno tkivo i kroz amnionsku tekućinu koja okružuje fetus, zvukovi koje fetus čuje, počevši oko četvrtog mjeseca gestacije su bezvučni i prigušeni. Jedan istraživač kaže da vjerojatno zvuče poput glasa učiteljice Charlieja Browna u starom Kikiriki crtiću. Ali glas trudne žene odjekuje kroz njeno tijelo, dostižući fetus spremnije. I zato što je fetus s njom cijelo vrijeme, često čuje njen glas. Jednom kad se dijete rodi, prepoznaje njen glas i preferira slušanje njenog glasa u odnosu na bilo koji drugi.
How can we know this? Newborn babies can't do much, but one thing they're really good at is sucking. Researchers take advantage of this fact by rigging up two rubber nipples, so that if a baby sucks on one, it hears a recording of its mother's voice on a pair of headphones, and if it sucks on the other nipple, it hears a recording of a female stranger's voice. Babies quickly show their preference by choosing the first one. Scientists also take advantage of the fact that babies will slow down their sucking when something interests them and resume their fast sucking when they get bored. This is how researchers discovered that, after women repeatedly read aloud a section of Dr. Seuss' "The Cat in the Hat" while they were pregnant, their newborn babies recognized that passage when they hear it outside the womb. My favorite experiment of this kind is the one that showed that the babies of women who watched a certain soap opera every day during pregnancy recognized the theme song of that show once they were born. So fetuses are even learning about the particular language that's spoken in the world that they'll be born into.
Kako to možemo znati? Novorođenčad ne može mnogo učiniti, ali jedna stvar u kojoj je zaista dobra je sisanje. Istraživači su iskoristili prednost ove činjenice lažiranjem dvije gumene bradavice tako da ako beba siše jednu, čuje snimku majčinog glasa na slušalicama, a ako siše na drugoj čuje snimku glasa strane žene. Bebe su brzo pokazale sklonost odabirući prvu. Znanstvenici su također iskoristili prednost činjenice da će bebe usporiti sisanje kada ih nešto zainteresira i nastaviti brzo sisanje kad im postane dosadno. Evo kako su istraživači to otkrili, nakon što su žene ponovno čitale na glas odlomak iz Dr. Seussovog „Mačka u šeširu“ dok su bile trudne, njihova novorođenčad je prepoznala taj odlomak kad ga je čula van maternice. Moj omiljeni pokus ove vrste je onaj koji je pokazao da su bebe žena koje su gledale određenu sapunicu svaki dan tijekom trudnoće prepoznale uvodnu pjesmu te serije kad su se rodila. Dakle, fetusi čak uče o određenom jeziku koji se govori u svijetu u kojem će biti rođeni.
A study published last year found that from birth, from the moment of birth, babies cry in the accent of their mother's native language. French babies cry on a rising note while German babies end on a falling note, imitating the melodic contours of those languages. Now why would this kind of fetal learning be useful? It may have evolved to aid the baby's survival. From the moment of birth, the baby responds most to the voice of the person who is most likely to care for it -- its mother. It even makes its cries sound like the mother's language, which may further endear the baby to the mother, and which may give the baby a head start in the critical task of learning how to understand and speak its native language.
Studija objavljena prošle godine otkrila je da od rođenja, od trenutka rođenja djeca plaču naglaskom majčinog materinskog jezika. Francuske bebe plaču povišenim tonom dok njemačka djeca završavaju nižim tonom imitirajući melodijske obrise tih jezika. Zašto bi ovakva vrsta fetalnog učenja bila korisna? Možda je evoluirala kako bi pomogla bebinom preživljavanju. Od trenutka rođenja beba najviše reagira na glas osobe koja najviše brine za nju– svoje majke. Čak svoj plač čini takvim da zvuči poput majčinog jezika koji može dodatno omiliti bebu majci i koji može bebi dati prednost u kritičnom zadatku učenja kako razumjeti i govoriti svoj materinski jezik.
But it's not just sounds that fetuses are learning about in utero. It's also tastes and smells. By seven months of gestation, the fetus' taste buds are fully developed, and its olfactory receptors, which allow it to smell, are functioning. The flavors of the food a pregnant woman eats find their way into the amniotic fluid, which is continuously swallowed by the fetus. Babies seem to remember and prefer these tastes once they're out in the world. In one experiment, a group of pregnant women was asked to drink a lot of carrot juice during their third trimester of pregnancy, while another group of pregnant women drank only water. Six months later, the women's infants were offered cereal mixed with carrot juice, and their facial expressions were observed while they ate it. The offspring of the carrot juice drinking women ate more carrot-flavored cereal, and from the looks of it, they seemed to enjoy it more.
Ali nisu samo zvukovi ti o kojima fetus uči u maternici. Tu su i okusi i mirisi. Do sedmog mjeseca gestacije, fetusovi okusni pupoljci su potpuno razvijeni i njegovi njušni receptori koji mu dozvoljavaju da njuši funkcioniraju. Okus hrane koju trudna žena jede pronalazi put do amnionske tekućine koju fetus konstantno guta. Čini se da bebe pamte i preferiraju te okuse kad jednom izađu u svijet. U jednom pokusu, grupa trudnih žena je zamoljena da pije mnogo soka od mrkve tijekom trećeg tromjesečja trudnoće dok je druga grupa trudnih žena pila samo vodu. Šest mjeseci poslije bebama su ponuđene žitarice sa sokom od mrkve i promatrani su izrazi njihovih lica dok su jele. Potomci žena koje su pile sok od mrkve pojeli su više žitarica s okusom mrkve i prema izrazima činilo se da više uživaju u tome.
A sort of French version of this experiment was carried out in Dijon, France where researchers found that mothers who consumed food and drink flavored with licorice-flavored anise during pregnancy showed a preference for anise on their first day of life, and again, when they were tested later, on their fourth day of life. Babies whose mothers did not eat anise during pregnancy showed a reaction that translated roughly as "yuck." What this means is that fetuses are effectively being taught by their mothers about what is safe and good to eat. Fetuses are also being taught about the particular culture that they'll be joining through one of culture's most powerful expressions, which is food. They're being introduced to the characteristic flavors and spices of their culture's cuisine even before birth.
Francuska verzija ovog pokusa održana je u Dijonu u Francuskoj gdje su istraživači otkrili da su bebe majki koje su konzumirale hranu i piće s okusom slatkog korijena anisa tijekom trudnoće pokazale skolonost anisu prvog dana života i ponovo kada su kasnije bila testirana, četvrtog dana života. Bebe čije majke nisu jele anis tijekom trudnoće pokazale su reakciju koja je grubo prevedena kao „fuj“. To znači da su fetusi učinkovito naučeni od strane majki o tome što je sigurno i dobro za jelo. Fetusi su također poučeni o određenoj kulturi kojoj će se pridružiti kroz jednu od najmoćnijih kulturnih izražaja, a to je hrana. Upoznati su s karakteristikama okusa i začina kuhinje njihove kulture čak i prije rođenja.
Now it turns out that fetuses are learning even bigger lessons. But before I get to that, I want to address something that you may be wondering about. The notion of fetal learning may conjure up for you attempts to enrich the fetus -- like playing Mozart through headphones placed on a pregnant belly. But actually, the nine-month-long process of molding and shaping that goes on in the womb is a lot more visceral and consequential than that. Much of what a pregnant woman encounters in her daily life -- the air she breathes, the food and drink she consumes, the chemicals she's exposed to, even the emotions she feels -- are shared in some fashion with her fetus. They make up a mix of influences as individual and idiosyncratic as the woman herself. The fetus incorporates these offerings into its own body, makes them part of its flesh and blood. And often it does something more. It treats these maternal contributions as information, as what I like to call biological postcards from the world outside.
Čini se da fetusi uče čak i veće lekcije. Ali prije nego što dođem do toga, želim vas uputiti u nešto o čemu ste možda razmišljali. Značaj fetalnog učenja vam može prizvati pokušaje da obogatite fetus – poput puštanja Mozarta preko slušalica smještenih na trudničkom trbuhu. Ali zapravo, devet mjeseci dug proces kalupljenja i oblikovanja koji se odvija u maternici je mnogo organskiji i dosljedniji od toga. Mnogo toga što trudnica susreće tijekom svog dnevnog života – zrak koji udiše, hrana i piće koju konzumira, kemikalije kojima je izložena čak i emocije koje osjeća – su podijeljene na neki način s njenim fetusom. Oni čine mješavinu utjecaja pojedinačno i idiosinkrastički, kao i žena sama. Fetus objedinjuje te ponude u svoje vlastito tijelo, čini ih dijelom svoje krvi i mesa. I često čini nešto više. Tretira te majčine doprinose kao informaciju kao nešto što volim zvati biološkim razglednicama iz svijeta koji je vani.
So what a fetus is learning about in utero is not Mozart's "Magic Flute" but answers to questions much more critical to its survival. Will it be born into a world of abundance or scarcity? Will it be safe and protected, or will it face constant dangers and threats? Will it live a long, fruitful life or a short, harried one? The pregnant woman's diet and stress level in particular provide important clues to prevailing conditions like a finger lifted to the wind. The resulting tuning and tweaking of a fetus' brain and other organs are part of what give us humans our enormous flexibility, our ability to thrive in a huge variety of environments, from the country to the city, from the tundra to the desert.
Dakle, ono što fetus uči u maternici nije Mozartova „Čarobna frula“ nego odgovori na pitanja koja su bitnija za njegovo preživljavanje. Hoće li biti rođen u svijetu izobilja ili nestašice? Hoće li biti siguran i zaštićen ili će se suočavati s konstantnim opasnostima i prijetnjama? Hoće li živjeti dugim, plodnim životom ili kratkim, uništenim životom? Pogotovo trudnička dijeta i razina stresa pružaju važne naznake o prevladavajućim uvjetima poput prsta podignutog u zrak. To podešavanje i ugađanje fetusovog mozga i drugih organa je dio onoga što daje nama ljudima ogromnu fleksibilnost, našu sposobnost da napredujemo u velikoj raznovrsnosti okoliša, od sela do grada, od tundre do pustinje.
To conclude, I want to tell you two stories about how mothers teach their children about the world even before they're born. In the autumn of 1944, the darkest days of World War II, German troops blockaded Western Holland, turning away all shipments of food. The opening of the Nazi's siege was followed by one of the harshest winters in decades -- so cold the water in the canals froze solid. Soon food became scarce, with many Dutch surviving on just 500 calories a day -- a quarter of what they consumed before the war. As weeks of deprivation stretched into months, some resorted to eating tulip bulbs. By the beginning of May, the nation's carefully rationed food reserve was completely exhausted. The specter of mass starvation loomed. And then on May 5th, 1945, the siege came to a sudden end when Holland was liberated by the Allies.
Kako bih zaključila želim vam ispričati dvije priče o tome kako majke uče svoju djecu o svijetu prije nego što se rode. U jesen 1944., najmračnijim danima 2. svjetskog rata, njemačke su trupe blokirale zapadnu Nizozemsku, udaljivši sve pošiljke hrane. Otvaranje nacističke opsade pratila je jedna od najtežih zima u tom desetljeću – tako hladna da se voda u kanalima čvrsto smrznula. Ubrzo je hrana postala oskudna i mnogo je Nizozemaca preživljavalo sa samo 500 kalorija na dan – četvrtina onoga što su konzumirali prije rata. Kako su se tjedni siromaštva rastegnuli na mjesece, neki su pribjegli jedenju lukovica tulipana. Početkom svibnja, narod je pažljivo odmjerio da su rezerve hrane potpuno istrošene. Prijetila je avet masovnog gladovanja. I tada, 5. svibnja 1945., opsada je odjednom završila kada je Nizozemska oslobođena uz pomoć saveznika.
The "Hunger Winter," as it came to be known, killed some 10,000 people and weakened thousands more. But there was another population that was affected -- the 40,000 fetuses in utero during the siege. Some of the effects of malnutrition during pregnancy were immediately apparent in higher rates of stillbirths, birth defects, low birth weights and infant mortality. But others wouldn't be discovered for many years. Decades after the "Hunger Winter," researchers documented that people whose mothers were pregnant during the siege have more obesity, more diabetes and more heart disease in later life than individuals who were gestated under normal conditions. These individuals' prenatal experience of starvation seems to have changed their bodies in myriad ways. They have higher blood pressure, poorer cholesterol profiles and reduced glucose tolerance -- a precursor of diabetes.
„Gladna zima“, kako je postala poznata, ubila je oko 10 000 ljudi i oslabila još tisuće. Ali postojala je još jedna populacija na koju je to utjecalo – 40 000 fetusa u maternicama tijekom opsade. Neke posljedice pothranjenosti tijekom trudnoće odmah su se vidjele u većem postotku mrtvorođenčadi, urođenih mana, niskih porođajnih težina i smrtnosti novorođenčadi. Ali ostale nisu bile otkrivene mnogo godina. Desetljećima nakon „Gladne zime“ istraživači su dokumentirali da su ljudi čije su majke bile trudne za vrijeme opsade bili gojazniji, češće imali dijabetes i više srčanih bolesti kasnije u životu od pojedinaca koji su rođeni u normalnim uvjetima. Ta pojedinačna prenatalna iskustva izgladnjivanja očito su promijenila njihova tijela na bezbroj načina. Imaju povišen krvni tlak, lošije profile kolesterola i smanjenu toleranciju na glukozu – preteča dijabetesa.
Why would undernutrition in the womb result in disease later? One explanation is that fetuses are making the best of a bad situation. When food is scarce, they divert nutrients towards the really critical organ, the brain, and away from other organs like the heart and liver. This keeps the fetus alive in the short-term, but the bill comes due later on in life when those other organs, deprived early on, become more susceptible to disease.
Zašto bi pothranjivanje u maternici kasnije rezultiralo bolešću? Jedno objašnjenje je da fetusi izvlače najbolje iz loše situacije. Kada hrane nema oni skreću hranjive tvari prema zaista kritičnom organu, mozgu i podalje od ostalih organa poput srca i jetre. To drži fetus živim kratko vrijeme, ali račun dolazi na naplatu kasnije u životu kada ti ostali organi, uskraćeni ranije, postanu podložniji bolesti.
But that may not be all that's going on. It seems that fetuses are taking cues from the intrauterine environment and tailoring their physiology accordingly. They're preparing themselves for the kind of world they will encounter on the other side of the womb. The fetus adjusts its metabolism and other physiological processes in anticipation of the environment that awaits it. And the basis of the fetus' prediction is what its mother eats. The meals a pregnant woman consumes constitute a kind of story, a fairy tale of abundance or a grim chronicle of deprivation. This story imparts information that the fetus uses to organize its body and its systems -- an adaptation to prevailing circumstances that facilitates its future survival. Faced with severely limited resources, a smaller-sized child with reduced energy requirements will, in fact, have a better chance of living to adulthood.
Ali to možda nije sve što se zbiva. Čini se da fetusi primaju znakove iz intrauterine okoline i prilagođavaju svoju fiziologiju prema tome. Pripremaju se za vrstu svijeta u koji će ući na drugoj strani maternice. Fetus prilagođava svoj metabolizam i druge fiziološke procese predosjećajući okolinu koja ga čeka. I osnova fetusove pretpostavke je ono što majka jede. Obroci koje trudnica konzumira sadrže neku vrstu priče, bajku o izobilju ili strašnu kroniku siromaštva. Ova priča pruža informaciju koju fetus koristi kako bi organizirao svoje tijelo i sistem – adaptacija na dominirajuće okolnosti koja olakšava njegovo buduće preživljavanje. Suočeno s veoma ograničenim resursima, dijete manje veličine s reduciranim potrebama energije će zapravo imati bolje šanse za život u odrasloj dobi.
The real trouble comes when pregnant women are, in a sense, unreliable narrators, when fetuses are led to expect a world of scarcity and are born instead into a world of plenty. This is what happened to the children of the Dutch "Hunger Winter." And their higher rates of obesity, diabetes and heart disease are the result. Bodies that were built to hang onto every calorie found themselves swimming in the superfluous calories of the post-war Western diet. The world they had learned about while in utero was not the same as the world into which they were born.
Pravi problem dolazi kada trudnice postanu na neki način nepouzdani pripovjedači pa fetusi budu navedeni da očekuju svijet siromaštva, a umjesto toga rode se u svijetu izobilja. To se dogodilo djeci nizozemske „Gladne zime“. I njihova veća razina gojaznosti, dijabetes i srčane bolesti su rezultat. Tijela napravljena tako da ovise o svakoj kaloriji našla su se plivajući u suvišku kalorija poslijeratne Zapadne dijete. Svijet o kojem su učili dok su bili u maternici nije bio jednak svijetu u kojem su se rodili.
Here's another story. At 8:46 a.m. on September 11th, 2001, there were tens of thousands of people in the vicinity of the World Trade Center in New York -- commuters spilling off trains, waitresses setting tables for the morning rush, brokers already working the phones on Wall Street. 1,700 of these people were pregnant women. When the planes struck and the towers collapsed, many of these women experienced the same horrors inflicted on other survivors of the disaster -- the overwhelming chaos and confusion, the rolling clouds of potentially toxic dust and debris, the heart-pounding fear for their lives.
Evo još jedne priče. U 8:46, 11. rujna 2001. desetak tisuća ljudi bilo je u blizini Svjetskog trgovačkog centra u New Yorku – putnici izlaze iz vlakova, konobarice postavljaju stolove za jutarnju gužvu, brokeri već rade na telefonima na Wall Streetu. 1700 do tih ljudi su bile trudnice. Kada su se zrakoplovi zabili i tornjevi srušili, mnoge od tih žena doživjele su iste strahote kao i drugi preživjeli u toj katastrofi – prevladavajući kaos i zbrka, oblaci potencijalno otrovne prašine i krhotina, lupanje srca u strahu za vlastite živote.
About a year after 9/11, researchers examined a group of women who were pregnant when they were exposed to the World Trade Center attack. In the babies of those women who developed post-traumatic stress syndrome, or PTSD, following their ordeal, researchers discovered a biological marker of susceptibility to PTSD -- an effect that was most pronounced in infants whose mothers experienced the catastrophe in their third trimester. In other words, the mothers with post-traumatic stress syndrome had passed on a vulnerability to the condition to their children while they were still in utero.
Otprilike godinu dana nakon 11.09. istraživači su pregledali grupu žena koje su bile trudne kada su bile izložene napadu na Svjetski trgovački centar. Kod beba tih žena koje su razvile posttraumatski stresni poremećaj ili PTSP, slijedeći njihovu patnju, istraživači su otkrili biološki marker osjetljivosti na PTSP – efekt koji je bio najnaglašeniji kod dojenčadi čije su majke doživjele katastrofu u njihovom trećem tromjesečju. Drugim riječima, majke s posttraumatskim stresnim poremećajem su prenijele ranjivost na svoju djecu dok su još bila u maternici.
Now consider this: post-traumatic stress syndrome appears to be a reaction to stress gone very wrong, causing its victims tremendous unnecessary suffering. But there's another way of thinking about PTSD. What looks like pathology to us may actually be a useful adaptation in some circumstances. In a particularly dangerous environment, the characteristic manifestations of PTSD -- a hyper-awareness of one's surroundings, a quick-trigger response to danger -- could save someone's life. The notion that the prenatal transmission of PTSD risk is adaptive is still speculative, but I find it rather poignant. It would mean that, even before birth, mothers are warning their children that it's a wild world out there, telling them, "Be careful."
Uzmite u obzir, posttraumatski stresni poremećaj je reakcija na stres koji je pošao veoma krivo, uzrokujući svojim žrtvama ogromnu, nepotrebnu patnju. Ali postoji i drugi način razmišljanja o PTSP-u. Ono što nama izgleda kao patologija može biti korisna adaptacija u nekim okolnostima. U naročito opasnim okolinama, karakteristične manifestacije PTSP-a – hipersvjesnost okruženja, brzi okidač na opasnost, može spasiti nečiji život. Ideja o prenatalnom prijenosu PTSP rizika je prilagodljiva, još je spekulativna, ali ja je smatram pronicljivom. To bi značilo da čak prije rođenja majke upozoravaju svoju djecu da je tamo vani divlji svijet, govoreći im: „Budite oprezni.“
Let me be clear. Fetal origins research is not about blaming women for what happens during pregnancy. It's about discovering how best to promote the health and well-being of the next generation. That important effort must include a focus on what fetuses learn during the nine months they spend in the womb. Learning is one of life's most essential activities, and it begins much earlier than we ever imagined.
Da budem jasna, istraživanje fetalnog podrijetla nije u okrivljavanju žena za ono što se događa tijekom trudnoće. Cilj je otkriti kako najbolje poboljšati zdravlje i blagostanje sljedećih generacija. Taj važan napor mora se usmjeriti na ono što fetusi uče tijekom devet mjeseci koje provedu u maternici. Učenje je jedna od najvažnijih aktivnosti u životu i počinje mnogo ranije nego što smo ikada zamišljali.
Thank you.
Hvala vam.
(Applause)
(Pljesak)