Humans have long held a fascination for the human brain. We chart it, we've described it, we've drawn it, we've mapped it. Now just like the physical maps of our world that have been highly influenced by technology -- think Google Maps, think GPS -- the same thing is happening for brain mapping through transformation.
Ljudi su već dugo vremena fascinirani mozgom. Napravili smo grafikone, opisali smo ga, nacrtali smo ga, mapirali smo ga. Baš kao karte svijeta koje su pod velikim utjecajem tehnologije -- sjetite se Google Map-a, GPS-a -- ista se transformacija događa kod mapiranja mozga.
So let's take a look at the brain. Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain, they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at when someone shows you a brain." Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray. And this outer layer, this is the vasculature, which is incredible, around a human brain. This is the blood vessels. 20 percent of the oxygen coming from your lungs, 20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart, is servicing this one organ. That's basically, if you hold two fists together, it's just slightly larger than the two fists.
Pogledajmo mozak. Većina ljudi, kada prvi put ugledaju ljudski mozak, kaže: „ Ne izgleda kao ono što se tipično prikazuje kao mozak.“ Uobičajeno, ono što vidite je fiksirani mozak. On je siv. A ovaj vanjski sloj, to je vaskulatura, koja je nevjerojatna, oko ljudskog mozga. Ovo su krvne žile. 20% kisika dolazi iz pluća, 20% od krvi ispumpane iz vašeg srca opskrbljuje ovaj organ. U principu, ako držite dvije šake stisnute zajedno, mozak je samo malo veći od te dvije šake.
Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century, learned that they could track blood flow to map non-invasively where activity was going on in the human brain. So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain, which is just turning around there. There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now. It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement. On the side here, this is temporal cortex. This is the area where primary auditory processing -- so you're hearing my words, you're sending it up into higher language processing centers. Towards the front of the brain is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making -- it's the last to mature in late adulthood. This is where all your decision-making processes are going on. It's the place where you're deciding right now you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner.
Znanstvenici su, negdje krajem 20. stoljeća, naučili da mogu, neinvazivno prateći protok krvi na mapi, vidjeti gdje se odvija pojedina aktivnost u ljudskom mozgu. Na primjer, oni mogu vidjeti stražnji dio mozga, koji se nalazi ovdje. Tu je mali mozak, koji vas održava uspravnima u ovom trenutku. On mi pomaže da stojim ovdje. Uključen je u koordinaciju pokreta. Na ovoj je strani temporalni korteks. To je područje primarnog auditornog procesiranja -- znači, čujete moje riječi i šaljete ih u druge centre za daljnju, višu obradu. Idući prema prednjem dijelu mozga, nalazi se područje složenijih misli, donošenja odluka -- ono zadnje sazrijeva, u kasnoj odrasloj dobi. Ovdje se odvijaju svi procesi donošenja vaših odluka. To je mjesto gdje upravo odlučujete kako vjerojatno nećete naručiti odrezak za večeru.
So if you take a deeper look at the brain, one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section, what you can see is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there. But there's actually a lot of structure there. It's cells and it's wires all wired together. So about a hundred years ago, some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells. And that's shown here in the the very light blue. You can see areas where neuronal cell bodies are being stained. And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there. So the outer part of that brain is the neocortex. It's one continuous processing unit, if you will. But you can also see things underneath there as well. And all of these blank areas are the areas in which the wires are running through. They're probably less cell dense. So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain. And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed. And how they're distributed really contributes to their underlying function. And of course, as I mentioned before, since we can now start to map brain function, we can start to tie these into the individual cells.
Dakle, ako bolje pogledate mozak, jedna od stvari, ako ga gledate na presjeku, koju možete vidjeti jest da zapravo i ne možete vidjeti mnogo struktura tamo. Ali tu zapravo ima puno struktura. To su stanice i snopovi, svi međusobno povezani. Prije otprilike sto godina znanstvenici su izumili boju koja će obojati stanice. To je ovdje prikazano kao vrlo svijetlo plava. Možete vidjeti područja gdje su obojana normalna tijela stanica. A ono što možete vidjeti je jako nejednoliko. Možete vidjeti mnoge strukture. Vanjski je dio mozga neokorteks. To je jedna kontinuirana procesorska jedinica, moglo bi se reći. Ali vi, također, možete vidjeti stvari ispod njega. I sva ova prazna područja su područja kroz koja prolaze snopovi, poveznice. Vjerojatno su manje stanične gustoće. Postoji otprilike 86 milijardi neurona u našem mozgu. I kao što možete vidjeti, prilično su nejednoliko raspoređeni. A način na koji su raspoređeni pridonosi određivanju njihove temeljne funkcije. I, naravno, kao što sam već spomenuo, s obzirom da sada možemo početi mapirati moždane aktivnosti, možemo početi povezivati te aktivnosti s pojedinim stanicama.
So let's take a deeper look. Let's look at neurons. So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons. There are also these smaller cells as you'll see. These are support cells -- astrocytes glia. And the nerves themselves are the ones who are receiving input. They're storing it, they're processing it. Each neuron is connected via synapses to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain. And each neuron itself is largely unique. The unique character of both individual neurons and neurons within a collection of the brain are driven by fundamental properties of their underlying biochemistry. These are proteins. They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement. They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with. And they're controlling basically everything that the nervous system has to do.
Sada pogledajmo malo dublje. Pogledajmo neurone. Kao što sam već rekao, postoji 86 milijardi neurona. Tu su i ove manje stanice, kao što vidite. Ovo su potporne stanice -- astroglija stanice. Sami živci su oni koji primaju signal. Oni ga pohranjuju, oni ga obrađuju. Svaki je neuron, preko sinapsi, spojen s do 10.000 drugih neurona u našem mozgu. I svaki je neuron, sam za sebe, prilično jedinstven. Jedinstveni karakter, kako individualnih neurona, tako i neurona unutar područja u mozgu, određen je temeljnim značajkama njihove biokemijske podloge. Ovo su proteini. To su proteini koji kontroliraju stvari kao što je prolazak kroz ionske kanale. Oni kontroliraju s kim se povezuju stanice živčanog sustava. I oni, u osnovi, kontroliraju sve što živčani sustav mora činiti.
So if we zoom in to an even deeper level, all of those proteins are encoded by our genomes. We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes. We get one from mom, one from dad. And on these chromosomes are roughly 25,000 genes. They're encoded in the DNA. And the nature of a given cell driving its underlying biochemistry is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes are turned on and at what level they're turned on.
Ako pogledamo sve to na još dubljoj razini, svi su ti proteini kodirani našim genomima. Svatko od nas ima 23 para kromosoma. Jedan dobijemo od majke, jedan od oca. Na ovim se kromosomima nalazi otprilike 25.000 gena. Oni su kodirani u DNK. I prirodu ovih stanica, određujući njihovu biokemijsku podlogu, diktira koji je od ovih 25.000 gena aktivan i na kojem je stupnju aktivan.
And so our project is seeking to look at this readout, understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on. So in order to undertake such a project, we obviously need brains. So we sent our lab technician out. We were seeking normal human brains. What we actually start with is a medical examiner's office. This a place where the dead are brought in. We are seeking normal human brains. There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains. We want to make sure that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60, they died a somewhat natural death with no injury to the brain, no history of psychiatric disease, no drugs on board -- we do a toxicology workup. And we're very careful about the brains that we do take. We're also selecting for brains in which we can get the tissue, we can get consent to take the tissue within 24 hours of time of death. Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA -- which is the readout from our genes -- is very labile, and so we have to move very quickly.
Naš projekt pokušava razumijeti ovo iščitavanje, shvatiti koji je od ovih 25.000 gena aktivan. Znači, kako bismo proveli takav projekt, očito je da trebamo nekakve mozgove. Zato smo poslali našeg laboratorijskog tehničara u potragu. Tražili smo normalne ljudske mozgove. Počeli smo s uredom za medicinsko vještačenje. To je mjesto gdje dovode mrtve. Mi tražimo normalne ljudske mozgove. Brojni su kriteriji po kojima izabiremo ove mozgove. Želimo biti sigurni da imamo normalne ljudske mozgove starosti između 20 i 60 godina, da su ljudi umrli prirodnom smrću, bez ozljeda mozga, da nisu imali zabilježenih psihijatrijskih poremećaja, prisutnosti droge -- zato radimo toksikološki pregled. I jako smo pažljivi u pogledu mozgova koje uzimamo. Također, tražimo mozgove od kojih možemo uzeti uzorak, one za koje u roku od 24 sata od trenutka smrti dobijemo dozvolu da uzmemo uzorak. Ovo radimo zato što je ono što pokušavamo analizirati, RNK -- koja je iščitanje naših gena -- vrlo labilno pa moramo brzo djelovati.
One side note on the collection of brains: because of the way that we collect, and because we require consent, we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains. Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life. And men are much more likely to have their significant other, spouse, give consent than the other way around.
Još jedna napomena o prikupljanju mozgova: zbog načina na koji prikupljamo i zato što tražimo suglasnost, imamo puno više muških, nego ženskih mozgova. Muškarci imaju veće šanse umrijeti slučajnom smrću u najboljim godinama svoga života. I muškarci imaju veće šanse da će njihova bolja polovica, supruga, dati suglasnost za navedeno, nego obrnuto.
(Laughter)
(Smijeh)
So the first thing that we do at the site of collection is we collect what's called an MR. This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI. It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data. So we collect this MR. And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map. The next thing we do is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging. This maps the large cabling in the brain. And again, you can think of this as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will. The brain is removed from the skull, and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices. And those are frozen solid, and they're shipped to Seattle. And in Seattle, we take these -- this is a whole human hemisphere -- and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer. There's a blade here that's going to cut across a section of the tissue and transfer it to a microscope slide. We're going to then apply one of those stains to it, and we scan it. And then what we get is our first mapping.
Prva stvar koju činimo na mjestu prikupljanja je MR. To je magnetska rezonanca -- MRI. To je standardni predložak prema kojemu ćemo određivati ostatak ovih podataka. Zato snimamo MR. Ovo možete smatrati satelitskim prikazom naše karte. Sljedeći je korak skupljanje difuznog prikaza. Ovo prikazuje velike poveznice u mozgu. I opet, na ovo možete gledati kao na kartu naših državnih autocesta, ako hoćete. Mozak je prvo odstranjen iz lubanje i zatim je narezan na kriške debljine jednog centimetra. One su čvrsto zamrznute i poslane u Seattle. U Seattleu uzimamo ove -- ovo je cijela hemisfera -- i stavljamo ih u nešto što je, u principu, slično rezaču za meso. Ovdje je oštrica koja će prerezati dio tkiva i pretvoriti ga u mikroskopski preparat. Tada ćemo nanijeti jednu od boja na njega i skenirati ga. I ono što dobijemo jest naša prva mapa.
So this is where experts come in and they make basic anatomic assignments. You could consider this state boundaries, if you will, those pretty broad outlines. From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces, which then we can put on a smaller cryostat. And this is just showing this here -- this frozen tissue, and it's being cut. This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width. And remember, it's frozen. And so you can see here, old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied. We take a microscope slide. Then we very carefully melt onto the slide. This will then go onto a robot that's going to apply one of those stains to it. And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this.
Ovo je trenutak kada dolaze stručnjaci i obavljaju osnovne anatomske zadatke. Možete ovo smatrati kao državne granice, ako hoćete, ove grube crte. Od ovoga možemo vršiti daljnu fragmentaciju mozga, na komadiće koje možemo staviti na manji kriostat. Ovdje to možete vidjeti -- ovo je zamrznuto tkivo i ono se reže. Ovo je tanko 20 mikrona, to je otprilike debljina bebine dlake kose. I zapamtite, ovo je smrznuto. Ovdje možete vidjeti tradicionalanu tehnologiju nanošenja boje kistom. Uzimamo mikroskopski uzorak. Zatim ga pažljivo otapamo. Ovo će sada ići u uređaj koji će nanijeti neku od boja na njega. I naši anatomi će zatim bolje proučiti uzorak.
So again this is what they can see under the microscope. You can see collections and configurations of large and small cells in clusters and various places. And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments. And they can make basically what's a reference atlas. This is a more detailed map.
Ovo je ono što mogu vidjeti pod mikroskopom. Možete vidjeti nakupine i strukture velikih i malih stanica u skupinama i različitim mjestima. Dalje je sve rutinski. Anatomi znaju gdje obaviti koje poslove. I mogu napraviti osnovni referentni atlas. To je još malo detaljnija mapa.
Our scientists then use this to go back to another piece of that tissue and do what's called laser scanning microdissection. So the technician takes the instructions. They scribe along a place there. And then the laser actually cuts. You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off. You can see on the microscope slide here, that's what's happening in real time. There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue. We take that tissue, we purify the RNA out of it using some basic technology, and then we put a florescent tag on it. We take that tagged material and we put it on to something called a microarray.
Naši znanstvenici, tada, koriste ovo kako bi se vratili na drugi komadić tkiva i napravili ono što zovemo laserska mikrosekcija. Tehničar daje upute. On ih piše na jedno mjesto. I tada laser reže. Možete vidjeti ovu plavu točku koja reže. I to tkivo otpada. Možete sve vidjeti na mikrosposkom uzorku ovdje, ovo se događa u istom vremenu. Ispod je spremnik koji prikuplja tkivo. Mi uzimamo to tkivo, vadimo RNK iz njega koristeći jednostavnu tehnologiju i tada stavljamo flourescentnu oznaku na njega. Uzimamo označeni materijal i stavljamo ga na neku vrstu mikropločice.
Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you, but each one of these individual dots is actually a unique piece of the human genome that we spotted down on glass. This has roughly 60,000 elements on it, so we repeatedly measure various genes of the 25,000 genes in the genome. And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it, we get a unique fingerprint, if you will, quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample.
Vama ovo sada možda izgleda kao hrpa točkica, ali svaka je pojedina točkica jedinstven komadić ljudskog genoma koji smo uočili na staklu. Ovo ima, grubo rečeno, oko 60.000 elemenata na sebi -- zato konstantno mjerimo različite verzije gena od ukupnih 25.000 gena u genomu. I kada uzmemo uzorak i križamo ga s ovim, dobivamo jedinstveni otisak prsta, ako ćete tako lakše shvatiti, kvantitet gena koji su aktivni u tom uzorku.
Now we do this over and over again, this process for any given brain. We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain. This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus. It's involved in learning and memory. And it contributes to about 70 samples of those thousand samples. So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points with repeat measurements, a thousand samples.
Zatim to činimo ponovno i ponovno, ponavljamo ovaj proces za svaki dani mozak. Uzimamo preko tisuću uzoraka iz svakog mozga. Ovo područje ovdje naziva se hippokampus. Uključen je u procese učenja i pamćenja. I on daje oko 70 uzoraka od ovih 1.000 uzoraka. Svaki nam uzorak daje otprilike 50.000 podataka. Ponavljamo postupke na 1.000 uzoraka.
So roughly, we have 50 million data points for a given human brain. We've done right now two human brains-worth of data. We've put all of that together into one thing, and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like. It's basically a large data set of information that's all freely available to any scientist around the world. They don't even have to log in to come use this tool, mine this data, find interesting things out with this. So here's the modalities that we put together. You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before. Here's the MR. It provides the framework. There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn, it allows you to zoom in, it allows you to highlight individual structures.
Grubo rečeno, imamo 50 milijuna podataka za dani ljudski mozak. Dosada smo obradili količinu podataka koja odgovara količini za dva ljudska mozga. Sve smo to spojili u jedno i sada ću vam pokazati kako ta sinteza izgleda. To je, u principu, velika baza podataka i informacija koja je besplatna i dostupna svakom znanstveniku na svijetu. Ne moraju se čak niti prijaviti kako bi koristili ovaj program, ovu bazu, i otkrivali zanimljive stvari s nama. Ovo su modeli koje smo sklopili i postavili. Prepoznat ćete ove stvari prema onome što smo prethodno prikupljali. Evo MR-a. On pruža okvirnu sliku. Desno je operativni sistem koji vam omogućava da okrećete, povećavate, istaknete pojedine strukture.
But most importantly, we're now mapping into this anatomic framework, which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on. So the red levels are where a gene is turned on to a great degree. Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on. And each gene gives us a fingerprint. And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome and have all of that data available.
No, ono što je najvažnije, jest to da mi sada pravimo mapu u ovom anatomskom okviru, koji je jednostavan okvir preko kojeg ljudi mogu shvatiti koji su geni aktivni. Crveni slojevi su mjesta gdje je neki gen aktivan u velikoj mjeri. Zeleno su mjesta gdje nije uključen. A svaki nam gen daje svoj otisak. I zapamtite da smo analizirali svih 25.000 gena u genomu i da su nam dostupni svi ti podaci.
So what can scientists learn about this data? We're just starting to look at this data ourselves. There's some basic things that you would want to understand. Two great examples are drugs, Prozac and Wellbutrin. These are commonly prescribed antidepressants. Now remember, we're assaying genes. Genes send the instructions to make proteins. Proteins are targets for drugs. So drugs bind to proteins and either turn them off, etc. So if you want to understand the action of drugs, you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to, and also in the ways you don't want them to. In the side effect profile, etc., you want to see where those genes are turned on. And for the first time, we can actually do that. We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too.
Dakle, što znanstvenici mogu naučiti iz ove baze? Mi tek krećemo pregledavati te podatke osobno. Postoje neke osnovne stvari koje biste trebali razumijeti. Dva izvrsna primjera su lijekovi Prozac i Wellbutrin. To su najčešće propisivani antidepresivi. Sad upamtite, mi analiziramo gene. Geni šalju upute za pravljenje proteina. A proteini su meta lijekova. Lijekovi se vežu na proteine i, ili ih inhibiraju ili rade nešto drugo ... Stoga, ako želite razumijeti djelovanje lijekova, želite razumijeti način na koji djeluju kako biste vi to željeli i, naravno, način na koji ne želite da djeluju. Pri nuspojavama, na primjer, želite vidjeti gdje su ti geni uključeni. I prvi put, mi to zapravo možemo učiniti. Mi to možemo napraviti za više pojedinaca koje smo analizirali.
So now we can look throughout the brain. We can see this unique fingerprint. And we get confirmation. We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on -- for something like Prozac, in serotonergic structures, things that are already known be affected -- but we also get to see the whole thing. We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before, and we see these genes turned on there. It's as interesting a side effect as it could be. One other thing you can do with such a thing is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise, because there's unique fingerprint, we can actually scan through the entire genome and find other proteins that show a similar fingerprint. So if you're in drug discovery, for example, you can go through an entire listing of what the genome has on offer to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize.
Sada možemo gledati kroz mozak. Možemo vidjeti ovaj jedinstveni otisak prsta. I možemo dobiti potvrdu. Možemo potvrditi da, uistinu, gen jest uključen -- za nešto poput Prozaca, u serotonergičkim strukturama, za koje se već zna da su pod utjecajem, ali sada, također, možemo vidjeti kompletan prikaz. Također, možemo vidjeti područja koja nitko nikada nije pregledavao i koji su geni tamo aktivni. To je zanimljiv nusprodukt. Još jedna zanimljiva stvar koju možete učiniti, jer je ovo vježba uspoređivanja s uzorkom i jer postoji jedinstveni otisak, možete proći kroz cijeli genom i vidjeti druge proteine koji pokazuju sličnost ovima. Stoga, ako ste u procesu traženja lijeka, na primjer, možete proći kroz cijelo izlistanje onoga što genom ima za ponuditi kako biste, možda, našli bolje mete za lijek i na taj način optimizirali djelovanje lijeka.
Most of you are probably familiar with genome-wide association studies in the form of people covering in the news saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes which affect X." And so these kinds of studies are routinely published by scientists and they're great. They analyze large populations. They look at their entire genomes, and they try to find hot spots of activity that are linked causally to genes. But what you get out of such an exercise is simply a list of genes. It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where. And so it's very important for those researchers that we've created this resource. Now they can come in and they can start to get clues about activity. They can start to look at common pathways -- other things that they simply haven't been able to do before.
Većina vas je vjerojatno upoznata s genomom -- širok spektar studija koji se tiče liječenja ljudi u vijestima govori : „Znanstvenici su nedavno pronašli gen ili gene koji utječu na nešto ...“ Ovakve se studije rutinski objavljuju od strane znanstevnika i one su sjajne. One analiziraju velike populacije. One razmatraju cijele njihove genome i pokušavaju naći mjesta aktivnosti koja su uzročno povezana s genima. Ali ono što dobijete od ovakve studije jest obična lista gena. Govori vam koji su, ali vam ne govori gdje. I zato je od iznimne važnosti za ove istraživače to što smo kreirali ovakavu bazu. Sada mogu doći i dobiti neke naznake o aktivnosti gena. Mogu početi tražiti zajedničke puteve -- sve druge stvari koje jednostavno nisu bili u mogućnosti činiti prije.
So I think this audience in particular can understand the importance of individuality. And I think every human, we all have different genetic backgrounds, we all have lived separate lives. But the fact is our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar. We're similar at the genetic level. And what we're finding is actually, even at the brain biochemical level, we are quite similar. And so this shows it's not 99 percent, but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence at a reasonable cutoff, so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated. And then we find some outliers, some things that lie beyond the cloud. And those genes are interesting, but they're very subtle. So I think it's an important message to take home today that even though we celebrate all of our differences, we are quite similar even at the brain level.
Smatram da ova publika posebno može razumijeti važnost individualnosti. I smatram da to može svaki čovjek, mi svi imamo drugačije genetičke pozadine, svi živimo različite, odvojene živote. Ali činjenica je da naši genomi pokazuju više od 99% sličnosti. Na genetičkoj smo razini slični. I ono što nalazimo, zapravo, čak i na biokemijskoj razini mozga, jest da smo prilično slični. Ovo pokazuje da nije baš 99%, ali je otprilike 90% podudarnosti na normalnom uzorku. Sve u oblaku je prilično povezano. A tada nalazimo neka odstupanja, neke stvari koje se nalaze izvan oblaka. I ti su geni interesantni, ali su prilično nezamjetni. Stoga, smatram da je važna poruka koju trebamo ponijeti doma danas to da smo, iako slavimo svu našu različitost, zapravo prilično slični, čak i na razini mozga.
Now what do those differences look like? This is an example of a study that we did to follow up and see what exactly those differences were -- and they're quite subtle. These are things where genes are turned on in an individual cell type. These are two genes that we found as good examples. One is called RELN -- it's involved in early developmental cues. DISC1 is a gene that's deleted in schizophrenia. These aren't schizophrenic individuals, but they do show some population variation. And so what you're looking at here in donor one and donor four, which are the exceptions to the other two, that genes are being turned on in a very specific subset of cells. It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell that's telling us a gene is turned on there. Whether or not that's due to an individual's genetic background or their experiences, we don't know. Those kinds of studies require much larger populations.
Sada, kako izgledaju te razlike? Ovo je primjer studije koju smo radili kako bismo točno vidjeli koje su to razlike -- i bile su prilično nezamjetne. Ovdje su geni aktivni u individualnim stanicama. Ovo su dva gena koja smo izdvojili kao dobar primjer. Jedan je nazvan RELN -- on je aktivan u ranim razvojnim fazama. DISC1 je gen koji je izbrisan kod šizofrenije. Ovo nisu uzorci od osoba koje boluju od šizofrenije, ali pokazuju neke varijacije u populaciji. Ovo što vidite ovdje kod donora 1 i donora 4, koji su iznimke u odnosu na ostale, jest da su geni aktivni u prilično specifičnim podskupinama u stanici. Ovaj tamnoljubičasti talog unutar stanice nam govori da je gen tamo aktivan. Ovisi li to ili ne ovisi o individualnoj genetičkoj podlozi ili njihovim prethodnim iskustvima, ne znamo. Ove vrste studija zahtijevaju mnogo veće populacije.
So I'm going to leave you with a final note about the complexity of the brain and how much more we have to go. I think these resources are incredibly valuable. They give researchers a handle on where to go. But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point. We're certainly going to be looking at more. I'll just close by saying that the tools are there, and this is truly an unexplored, undiscovered continent. This is the new frontier, if you will. And so for those who are undaunted, but humbled by the complexity of the brain, the future awaits.
Ostavit ću vas s konačnom mišlju o složenosti mozga i koliko je još toga za istražiti pred nama. Smatram da su ovo podatci od iznimne važnosti. Oni daju istraživačima putokaz, u kojem smjeru ići. Ali u ovom trenutku gledamo samo na skupinu pojedinaca. U budućnosti ćemo svakako gledati na više toga. Završit ću rekavši da je tehnologija dostupna i da je ovo uistinu neistraženo, neotkriveno područje. Ovo je nova granica. I, stoga, za one koji su neustrašivi, ali ipak ponizni pred složenosti mozga, budućnost je pred vama.
Thanks.
Hvala.
(Applause)
(Pljesak)